Clash with England (1597) In the 1590s, the interests of the
English and the
Ottoman Turks coincided in opposing the
Spanish; on the other hand, Sigismund had clashed with the Turks in Poland's southeast. In the
Low Countries of northwestern Europe, Protestant forces sent by
Elizabeth I fought the Catholic armies of Spain's
Philip II Habsburg, preventing Spain from capturing territory on the south side of the
English Channel. England's naval power also prevented Spain from completely dominating the
Mediterranean, to the benefit of the Turks. During this time, England purchased a great deal of grain and timber from Poland to supply its navy, necessitating good relations with Poland.
Edward Barton, Elizabeth's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, had warned them that England would have to respond if the Ottomans invaded Poland. On 23 July,
Paweł Działyński arrived in
London and was accommodated at the house of
Sir John Spencer. As described by
Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, the ambassador out of Poland at first seemed to be "a gentleman of excellent fashion, wit, discourse, language, and person." Działyński informed Elizabeth that Sigismund was outraged that her vessels were capturing the ships of Polish and
Hanseatic merchants trading with the Spanish, and indicated that Sigismund was prepared to commence hostilities over the matter unless Elizabeth immediately rescinded this policy and returned captured ships and cargo. Elizabeth rose "lionlike" and rebuked Działyński, comparing his speech to a declaration of war and manners to those of "a herald rather than an ambassador." though the relations between the two nations became strained.
Zebrzydowski rebellion (1606) Sigismund's attempt to grasp unlimited authority resulted in the
Zebrzydowski rebellion, an armed insurrection formed in 1606 by
Hetman Mikołaj Zebrzydowski,
Jan Szczęsny Herburt,
Stanisław Stadnicki,
Aleksander Józef Lisowski and Prince
Janusz Radziwiłł in
Stężyca and
Lublin. It was primarily caused by the growing dissatisfaction with the monarch among the Polish
szlachta and wealthy
magnates. The rebels disapproved of Sigismund's efforts to weaken the diplomatic and political capabilities of the nobility and to introduce an absolute monarchy. They demanded the dethronement of Sigismund for breaching the
Henrician Articles and stipulated the expulsion of
Jesuits from the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Sejm was to be granted the authority of appointing state officials instead of the King, local officials were to be elected and the rights of Protestants expanded. The 1607 Parliament rejected these conditions. Meanwhile, the nobles mobilised in the village of
Guzów. In 1607 the Polish Royal Army, led by
Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz, was sent to pacify the rebels. A
full-scale battle ensued on 5 July, with 200 casualties, which resulted in the victory of the Royalist forces. The rebellious nobles formally surrendered to the King at the 1609 meeting of the parliament, which became known as the
Pacification Sejm. In return for their surrender, the rebels were granted leniency. Many royal supporters, including Hetman Chodkiewicz, had exacted amnesty for the rebels. While the Russians were embroiled in a civil war known as the
Time of Troubles, stoked by some Polish nobles through the
Dimitriads, Sigismund saw an opportunity to invade Russia and take power. Sweden also became involved, but never made a firm alliance with any one side.
Background The death of
Feodor I of Russia in 1598 caused internal instability and a succession crisis upon the extinction of the
Rurik dynasty. Further setbacks that contributed to the escalation of violence were the
famine of 1601–1603, which killed two million Russians, around a third of the population. The new
Tsar,
Boris Godunov, proved to be an ineffective ruler and died after suffering a brain haemorrhage in April 1605. He left one son,
Feodor II, who succeeded him and ruled for only a few months, until he and Godunov's widow were murdered under mysterious circumstances in June 1605, possibly on Sigismund's orders. Simultaneously, various impostors and pretenders to the Russian throne appeared claiming to be
Dmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son of
Ivan the Terrible, who in fact died in 1591. After the fall of Sigismund's candidates –
False Dmitry I and his Polish wife
Marina Mniszech (nicknamed "Marinka the Witch" by the Russians) –
Vasili Ivanovich Shuysky was crowned as Vasili IV. Prior raids between 1605 and 1609 were conducted by Polish nobles or adventurers along with hired
cossacks and
foreign mercenaries.
Lew Sapieha, Grand Chancellor of Lithuania, sought neutrality by proposing to
Boris Godunov an "eternal" peace treaty between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, but the idea did not gain support and was declined.
Campaign '', by Italian-born artist
Tommaso Dolabella, 1611|alt=Sigismund at the gates of Smolensk by Italian painter Tommaso Dolabella, 1611 The
Commonwealth army under the command of Hetman
Stanisław Żółkiewski crossed the border and on 29 September 1609
laid siege to Smolensk. On 4 July 1610, at the
Battle of Klushino, the outnumbered Polish force achieved a decisive victory over the combined Russian and Swedish force, mostly due to the tactical competence of the
Polish winged hussars. The battle was a major blow to the Russians; Tsar
Vasili IV was subsequently ousted by the
Seven Boyars, and Żółkiewski entered Moscow, beginning the two-year tyrannical occupation of the
Kremlin. The Seven Boyars proclaimed Polish prince
Władysław IV, Sigismund's son, as the new
Tsar of all Russia. In June 1611 Smolensk fell to the
Poles; to Warsaw, where he paid
tribute to Sigismund and the
Senate at the
Royal Castle on 29 October 1611. He eventually died in captivity at
Gostynin; he was most likely poisoned, as his brother died soon after. The Polish army also committed countless atrocities while stationed in Moscow. In 1611,
Kuzma Minin and
Dmitry Pozharsky formed a new army to launch an uprising against the Polish occupiers. The Poles eventually
withdrew from Moscow in September 1612 after pillaging and burning the city. When news reached Sigismund he hurried with a relief force, but was unable to commence an attack. The agreement marked the greatest geographical expansion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the loss of Livonia in 1629. However, Russia was able to retain independence and
Michael Romanov was crowned Tsar in 1613.
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) Sigismund sought to join the Catholic side of the
Thirty Years' War, but was denied by the Polish parliament. British historian
Robert Nisbet Bain wrote that his plan was to invade and possibly occupy
Transylvania, then an Ottoman ally and therefore considered dangerous to the
Habsburg monarchy and Poland. The
Rákóczis and
Gabriel Bethlen were sympathetic with the Sultan and would counterattack if the opportunity arose.
Polish–Ottoman War (1620–1621) of Sigismund following his victory over the
Ottoman Empire,
etching from 1629. The King's spear striking a
Turk symbolises the triumph of Catholicism and Christianity over
Islam.|alt=Sigismund on horseback striking Turks and Muslims with a lance The
Principality of Moldavia was a Polish
fief since the
Middle Ages, and Sigismund aimed at securing that despite the growing threat from the south. With the
Ottoman influence on the rise, the Sultan aimed at expanding the Ottoman Empire westward. The
Ottoman–Habsburg wars, which lasted almost two centuries, were also a sign of the Sultan's desire to rule mainland Europe. In turn, Sigismund sent an army to aid Graziani, a move which sparked the
Polish–Ottoman War. In 1620, the Polish forces were defeated at
Cecora and Hetman Żółkiewski perished during the battle. Approximately 160,000 men besieged the
Khotyn Fortress in September 1621, but were defeated at the
Battle of Khotyn by a Polish garrison counting no more than 50,000 soldiers. During the siege Hetman
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz died of exhaustion and illness in the camp. The
Treaty of Khotyn was signed on 9 October 1621, which resulted in no territorial gain or loss, but Sigismund was to relinquish his claims on Moldavia and the Ottoman Empire was prevented from marching into Poland. Sultan Osman himself was not fully satisfied with the war's outcome and blamed the defiant
janissaries. His wish and plans to modernize the army, which was blamed for the defeat, were however opposed by the traditionalist janissary units. Sigismund, already in advanced age, continued his long-term ambition to seize Sweden, which gave Gustavus Adolphus a reasonable
casus belli and justification for war. The first skirmish took place in January 1626 near
Wallhof, in present-day
Latvia, where the Swedish army of 4,900 men ambushed a Polish force of 2,000 men commanded by
Jan Stanisław Sapieha, son of Lew Sapieha. Escorted by a fleet, a second Swedish army disembarked in July near the town of
Piława (Pillau). The landings were a complete surprise to the Commonwealth's defences, and despite a relatively small Swedish force, Gustavus Adolphus quickly captured the coastal towns and cities, almost without a fight. Many of these were inhabited by
Protestants who resisted the staunchly Catholic Sigismund and Polish domination of their lands; some towns opened their gates to the Protestant Swedish forces, whom they portrayed as liberators. However, fortified
Gdańsk (Danzig), which maintained its own standing army and a sizeable fleet, refused to surrender.
Jędrzej Moraczewski described George's neutral stance to salvage his dukedom as "comical". , The Poles attempted to divert the Swedes from Gdańsk by deploying an army to fight at
Gniew. The battle, despite a tactical victory for Sweden, was a strategic blow to Gustavus, who was subsequently unable to besiege Gdańsk. The wound forced the king to stay in bed until autumn, and his right arm was weakened with some fingers partially paralysed. Although Poland emerged victorious in the final
battle at Trzciana, Sigismund's exhausted camp accepted a peace offer. The
Truce of Altmark signed on 26 September 1629 (16 September O.S.) granted Sweden the control of
Livonia, though Prussia,
Latgale and
Dyneburg remained under Polish governance. == Assassination attempt ==