Sodom and Gomorrah

, c. 1520 The etymology of the names Sodom and Gomorrah is uncertain, and scholars disagree about their origins. According to Burton MacDonald, the Hebrew term for Gomorrah was based on the Semitic root , which means "be deep, copious (water)". They are known in Hebrew as () and (). In the Septuagint, these became () and (); Biblical Hebrew ghayn merged with ayin after the Septuagint was transcribed. ==Biblical narrative==

Lot and Chedorlaomer Sodom and Gomorrah are among the "cities of the plain" referred to when Abraham and Lot resolve their conflict over land: Lot, the nephew of the Hebrew patriarch Abraham, chose to settle in the Jordan Valley and "moved his tent as far as Sodom". The cities were distinct entities at this time: Genesis 14:2 states that Bera was king of Sodom and Birsha was king of Gomorrah. Sodom and Gomorrah feature in the story of Lot's daughters (Genesis 19:29). The two cities rebel against Chedorlaomer of Elam, to whom they were subject. At the Battle of Siddim, Chedorlaomer defeats them and takes many captives, including Lot. Abraham gathers his men, rescues Lot, and frees the cities. Destruction of the cities and his daughters flee Sodom. Lot's wife (center) is already a pillar of salt. (Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493) Later, God gives notice to Abraham that Sodom had a reputation for wickedness. Abraham asks God "Will you sweep away the righteous with the wicked?" (Genesis 18:23). Starting at 50 people, Abraham negotiates with God to spare Sodom if ten righteous people could be found. God sends two male messengers to destroy Sodom. Lot welcomes them into his home, but all the men of the town surround the house and demand that he surrender the visitors that they may "know" them. (Genesis 19:5) Lot offers the mob his virgin daughters to "do to them as you please", but they refuse and threaten to do worse to Lot. The angels strike the crowd blind. The messengers tell Lot, "For we are about to destroy this place; because the outcry against them before has become so great that has sent us to destroy it." (Genesis 19:13). The next morning, because Lot had lingered, the messengers took Lot, Lot's wife, and his two daughters by the hand and out of the city, and told him to flee to the hills and not look back. Lot says that the hills are too far away and asks to go to Zoara in the Transjordan instead. God then rains sulfur and fire on Sodom and Gomorrah and all the Plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and what grew on the ground (Genesis 19:24–25). Lot and his two daughters are saved, but his wife disregards the angels' warning, looks back, and is turned into a pillar of salt. ==Other biblical references==

's Flight from Sodom (1630) The Hebrew Bible contains several other references to Sodom and Gomorrah. The New Testament also contains passages of parallels to the destruction and surrounding events that pertained to these cities and those who were involved. Later deuterocanonical texts attempt to glean additional insights about these cities of the Jordan Plain and their residents. Additionally, the sins which triggered the destruction are reminiscent of the Book of Judges' account of the Levite's concubine. Hebrew Bible "Sodom and Gomorrah" becomes a byword for destruction and desolation. Deuteronomy 29:21–23 refers to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah: Isaiah 1:9–10, 3:9 and 13:19–22 address people as from Sodom and Gomorrah, associates Sodom with shameless sinning and tells Babylon that it will end like those two cities. Jeremiah 23:14, 49:17–18, 50:39–40 and Lamentations 4:6 associate Sodom and Gomorrah with adultery and lies, prophesy the fate of Edom (south of the Dead Sea), predict the fate of Babylon and use Sodom as a comparison. Ezekiel 16:48–50 compares Jerusalem to Sodom, saying In Amos 4:1–11, God tells the Israelites that although he treated them like Sodom and Gomorrah, they still did not repent. In Zephaniah 2:9, Zephaniah tells Moab and Ammon that they will end up like Sodom and Gomorrah. Deuterocanon Wisdom 10:6–8 refers to the Five Cities: Wisdom 19:17 says that the Egyptians who enslaved the Israelites were "struck with blindness, like the men of Sodom who came to the door of that righteous man Lot. They found themselves in total darkness, as each one groped around to find his own door." Sirach 16:8 says "[God] did not spare the neighbors of Lot, whom he loathed on account of their insolence." In 3 Maccabees 2:5, the high priest Simon says that God "consumed with fire and sulfur the men of Sodom who acted arrogantly, who were notorious for their vices; and you made them an example to those who should come afterward". 2 Esdras 2:8–9 says "Woe to you, Assyria, who conceal the unrighteous in your midst! O wicked nation, remember what I did to Sodom and Gomor'rah, whose land lies in lumps of pitch and heaps of ashes. So will I do to those who have not listened to me, says the Lord Almighty." 2 Esdras 5:1–13 describes signs of the end times, one of which is that "the sea of Sodom shall cast up fish". In 2 Esdras 7:106, Ezra says that Abraham prayed for the people of Sodom. Chapter 12 of 1 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, references "Gemorra an Sedom". New Testament In Matthew 10:14–15 (cf. Luke 10:11–12) Jesus says: In Matthew 11:20–24, Jesus warns of the fate of some cities where he did some of his works: In Luke 17:28–30, Jesus says: Romans 9:29 refers to the words of Isaiah 1:9: "And as Isaiah predicted, "If the Lord of hosts had not left survivors to us, we would have fared like Sodom and been made like Gomorrah." 2 Peter 2:4–10 says that just as God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah and saved Lot, he will deliver godly people from temptations and punish the wicked on Judgement Day. Jude 1:7 records that both Sodom and Gomorrah "indulged in sexual immorality and pursued unnatural lust, serve as an example by undergoing a punishment of eternal fire". Revelation 11:7–8, regarding the two witnesses, reads: This wording is rendered "Sodom or Egypt" in some translations. ==The sin of Sodom==

In the Hebrew Bible, God destroyed Sodom for its sins, but in the Genesis story, no sin is singled out as the cause of this destruction. Other books initially attributed a variety of nonsexual sins to the inhabitants of Sodom. "Unnatural" sex and homosexuality began to be included on these lists, and eventually homosexuality was interpreted as the primary sin of Sodom. Since 1955, scholars increasingly view the great sin of Sodom to be one of inhospitable treatment of guests. Much of the debate in modern interpretation of the greatest sin of Sodom, and relatedly, whether the story concerns or condemns homosexuality, rests upon interpreting the moment the mob from Sodom confronts Lot about his guests. This is based upon Christian exegesis of the biblical text interpreting divine judgment upon Sodom and Gomorrah as punishment for the sin of homosexual sex. Byrne Fone, in Homophobia: A History, analyzes the history of theological discourse surrounding Sodom and Gomorrah. He locates the origin of the argument that sodomy was sinful to a contested reading of one word in the story. Citing Sodom and Gomorrah, Christian authorities began to label and condemn acts of sodomy as the worst of all sexual sins, and one of the worst crimes in general. For many centuries, the story of Sodom and Gomorrah was used by the church to justify criminalization of sexual practices between men, and people labeled sodomites were often punished by execution. Western nations followed with similar criminalization of male homosexuality and sexual practices between men, and thousands of people were executed since 1292 under these laws. Later, the term sodomite became an insult used against enemies of the church, regardless of sexuality or perceived sexual activity. The term began to be used on the basis of geography, ethnicity, and religion. Sodomy trials were also used by authorities against opponents, because some laws allowed the seizure of property and assets once someone was convicted of sodomy. Sodomy began to be decriminalized in Europe during the Age of Enlightenment: this process began when writers like Voltaire and the Marquis de Sade argued for tolerance of sodomy and dropping the death penalty. By the 1900s, the term sodomy began to leave legal discourse, and with the popularity of new terms like homosexual and heterosexual, people started to debate or condemn same-gender sexuality using the new terms instead. As with Ezekiel, later prophetic reproaches of Sodom and Gomorrah do not condemn, implicate, or even mention homosexual conduct as the reason for the cities' destruction: instead assigning the blame to other sins, such as adultery, dishonesty, and uncharitableness. Some Islamic societies incorporate punishments associated with Sodom and Gomorrah into sharia. ==Historicity==

, 1630/65 In the event the story has a historical basis, some naturalistic explanations have been proposed to explain the devastation of the cities as described in the Bible including a natural disaster. The Dead Sea area could have been devastated by an earthquake between 2100 and 1900 BC which then might have unleashed showers of steaming tar. This is possible in view of the fact that the location of the towns as described in the Bible would have been along a major fault such as the Jordan Rift Valley. There are, however, no known contemporary accounts of seismic activity that corroborate this theory. This and the suggestion that they were destroyed by a volcano have been deemed unlikely. The hypothesis that the disaster was a meteor airburst, such as the Tunguska incident, has also been dismissed. Some also argue that the story is a blend of actual locations and events rather than a singular historical incident. Possible sites Archibald Sayce translated an Akkadian poem describing cities that were destroyed in a rain of fire and written from the view of a person who escaped the destruction; unfortunately, the names of the cities are not given in the work. Sayce later mentions that the story more closely resembles the doom of Sennacherib's host. The ancient Greek historiographer Strabo states that locals living near Moasada (as opposed to Masada) say that "there were once thirteen inhabited cities in that region of which Sodom was the metropolis". Strabo identifies a limestone and salt hill at the southwestern tip of the Dead Sea, and Mount Sodom (, Har Sedom or , ''Jabal(u) 'ssudūm'') ruins nearby as the site of biblical Sodom. The Jewish historian Josephus identifies the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient biblical city of Sodom. He refers to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites. Some scholars believe that the locations of the two cities are currently flooded beneath the southern basin of the Dead Sea. In 1973, Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub discovered or visited a number of possible sites of the cities, including Bab edh-Dhra, which was originally excavated in 1965 by archaeologist Paul Lapp, and later finished by Rast and Schaub following Lapp's death. Other possibilities include Numeira, al-Safi, Feifa (or Fifa, Feifah), and Khirbet al-Khanazir, which were also visited by Schaub and Rast. According to Schaub, Numeira was destroyed in 2600 BC at a different time period than Bab edh-Dhra (2350–2067 BC). However, Kris J. Udd proposed that the date of destruction of Numeira and that of Bab edh-Dhra could be lowered to 2100–2050 BC and 2000–1950 BC respectively. In 1993, Nancy Lapp, from the Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, reported that Feifa had no Bronze Age occupation and was merely an Early Bronze Age cemetery with Iron Age walls. She reports: At Khirbet al-Khanazir, the walls which Rast and Schaub had identified in 1973 as houses were in reality rectangular charnel houses marking shaft tombs from near the end of the Early Bronze Age and not occupational structures. In 1976, Giovanni Pettinato claimed that a cuneiform tablet that had been found in the newly discovered library at Ebla contained the names of all five of the cities of the plain (Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Bela), listed in the same order as in Genesis. The names si-da-mu [TM.76.G.524] and ì-ma-ar [TM.75.G.1570 and TM.75.G.2233] were identified as representing Sodom and Gomorrah, which gained some acceptance at the time. However, Alfonso Archi states that, judging from the surrounding city names in the cuneiform list, si-da-mu lies in northern Syria and not near the Dead Sea, and ì-ma-ar is a variant of ì-mar, known to represent Emar, an ancient city located near Ebla. Today, the scholarly consensus is that "Ebla has no bearing on ... Sodom and Gomorra." ==Religious views==

Judaism Later Hebrew prophets named the sins of Sodom and Gomorrah as adultery, and uncharitableness. Rabbinic writings affirm that the Sodomites also committed economic crimes, blasphemy, and bloodshed. Other extrabiblical crimes committed by Sodom and Gomorrah included extortion on crossing a river, harshly punishing victims for crimes that the perpetrator committed, forcing an assault victim to pay for the perpetrator's "bloodletting" and forcing a woman to marry a man who intentionally caused her miscarriage to compensate for the lost child. Because of this, the judges of the two cities were referred to as Shakrai ("Liar"), Shakurai ("Awful Liar"), Zayyafi ("Forger") and Mazle Dina ("Perverter of Justice"). Eliezer was reported to be a victim of such legally unjust conduct, after Sarah sent him to Sodom to report on Lot's welfare. The citizens also regularly tortured foreigners who sought lodging. They did this by providing the foreigners a standard-sized bed and if they saw that the foreigners were too short for the beds, they would forcibly stretch their limbs, but if the foreigners were too tall, they would cut off their legs (the Greek myth of Procrustes tells a similar story). As a result, many people refrained from visiting Sodom and Gomorrah. Beggars who settled into the two cities for refuge were similarly mistreated. The citizens would give them marked coins (presumably used to purchase food) but were nonetheless forbidden, by proclamation, to provide these necessary services. Once the beggar died of starvation, citizens who initially gave the beggar the coins were permitted to retrieve them, provided that they could recognize it. The beggar's clothing was also provided as a reward for any citizen who could successfully overcome his opponent in a street fight. According to the Book of Jasher, Paltith, one of Lot's daughters, was burnt alive (in some versions, on a pyre) for giving a poor man bread. Her cries went to the heavens. Jon D. Levenson views a rabbinic tradition described in the Mishnah as postulating that the sin of Sodom was a violation of conventional hospitality in addition to homosexual conduct, describing Sodom's lack of generosity with the saying, "What is mine is mine; what is yours is yours" (m. Avot 5.10). Jay Michaelson proposes a reading of the story of Sodom that emphasizes the violation of hospitality as well as the violence of the Sodomites. "Homosexual rape is the way in which they violate hospitality—not the essence of their transgression. Reading the story of Sodom as being about homosexuality is like reading the story of an ax murderer as being about an ax." Michaelson places the story of Sodom in context with other Genesis stories regarding Abraham's hospitality to strangers, and argues that when other texts in the Hebrew Bible mention Sodom, they do so without commentary on homosexuality. The verses cited by Michaelson include Jeremiah 23:14, where the sins of Jerusalem are compared to Sodom and are listed as adultery, lying, and strengthening the hands of evildoers; Amos 4:1–11, as oppressing the poor and crushing the needy; and Ezekiel 16:49–50, which defines the sins of Sodom as "pride, fullness of bread, and abundance of idleness was in her and in her daughters, neither did she strengthen the hand of the poor and needy. And they were haughty, and did toevah before me, and I took them away as I saw fit." Michaelson uses toevah in place of abomination to emphasize the original Hebrew, which he explains as being more correctly translated as "taboo". Rabbi Basil Herring, who served as head of the Rabbinical Council of America from 2003 to 2012, writes that both the rabbinic literature and modern Orthodox position consider the Torah to condemn homosexuality as an abomination. Moreover, that it "conveys its abhorrence of homosexuality through a variety of narrative settings", God's judgment of Sodom and Gomorrah being a "paradigmatic" instance of such condemnation. Christianity Two areas of contention have arisen in modern Christian scholarship concerning the story of Sodom and Gomorrah: • Whether or not the violent mob surrounding Lot's house were demanding to engage in sexual violence against Lot's guests. • Whether it was homosexuality or another transgression, such as the act of inhospitable behavior towards visitors, the act of sexual assault, murder, theft, adultery, idolatry, power abuses, or prideful and mocking behavior, that was the principal reason for God's destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. The first contention focuses primarily upon the meaning of the Hebrew verb (yada), translated as know in the King James Version: Yada is used to refer to sexual intercourse in various instances, such as in Genesis 4:1 between Adam and Eve: Some Hebrew scholars believe that yada, unlike the English word "know", requires the existence of a "personal and intimate relationship". For this reason, many of the most popular of the 20th-century translations, including the New International Version, the New King James Version, and the New Living Translation, translate yada as "have sex with" or "know ... carnally" in Genesis 19:5. Those who favor the nonsexual interpretation argue against a denotation of sexual behavior in this context, noting that while the Hebrew word for "know" appears over 900 times in the Hebrew Bible, only 1% (13–14 times) Instead, those who hold to this interpretation see the demand to know as demanding the right to interrogate the strangers. Countering this is the observation that one of the examples of "know" meaning to know sexually occurs when Lot responds to the Genesis 19:5 request, by offering his daughters for rape, only three verses later in the same narrative: The Epistle of Jude is a major text in regard to these conflicting opinions: Many who interpret the stories in a nonsexual context contend that as the word for "strange" is akin to "another", "other", "altered" or even "next", the meaning is unclear, and if the condemnation of Sodom was the result of sexual activities perceived to be perverse, then it is likely that it was because women sought to commit fornication with "other than human" angels, perhaps referring to Genesis 6:1–4 or the apocryphal Book of Enoch. Countering this, it is pointed out that Genesis 6 refers to angels seeking women, not men seeking angels, and that both Sodom and Gomorrah were engaged in the sin Jude describes before the angelic visitation, and that, regardless, it is doubtful that the Sodomites knew they were angels. In addition, it is argued the word used in the King James Version of the Bible for "strange" can mean unlawful or corrupted (e.g. in Romans 7:3, Galatians 1:6), and that the apocryphal Second Book of Enoch condemns "sodomitic" sex (2 Enoch 10:3; 34:1), thus indicating that homosexual relations was the prevalent physical sin of Sodom. Both the nonsexual and the homosexuality view invoke certain classical writings as well as other portions of the Bible. Here, the nonsexual view focuses on the inhospitality aspect, while the other notes the description detestable or abomination, the Hebrew word for which often denotes moral sins, including those of a sexual nature. The nonsexual view focuses on the cultural importance of hospitality, which this biblical story shares with other ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, where hospitality was of singular importance and strangers were under the protection of the gods. James L. Kugel, Starr Professor of Hebrew Literature at Harvard University, suggests the story encompasses the sexual and nonsexual: the Sodomites were guilty of stinginess, inhospitality and sexual license, homo- and heterosexual in contrast to the generosity of Abraham, and Lot whose behavior in protecting the visitors but offering his daughters suggests he was "scarcely better than his neighbors" according to some ancient commentators, The Bible As It Was, 1997, pp. 179–197. Within the Christian churches that agree on the possible sexual interpretation of "know" (yada) in this context, there is still a difference of opinion on whether homosexuality is important. On its website, the Anglican Communion presents the argument that the story is "not even vaguely about homosexual love or relationships", but is instead "about dominance and rape, by definition an act of violence, not of sex or love". This argument that the violence and the threat of violence towards foreign visitors is the true ethical downfall of Sodom (and not homosexuality), also observes the similarity between the Sodom and Gomorrah and the Battle of Gibeah Bible stories. In both stories, an inhospitable mob demands the homosexual rape of a foreigner or foreigners. As the mob instead settles for the rape and murder of the foreigner's female concubine in the Battle of Gibeah story, the homosexual aspect is generally seen as inconsequential, and the ethical downfall is understood to be the violence and the threat of violence towards foreigners by the mob. This Exodus 22:21–24 lesson is viewed by Anglicans as a more historically accurate way to interpret the Sodom and Gomorrah story. Scholar in history and gender studies Lisa McClain has claimed that the association between Sodom and Gomorrah with homosexuality emerged from the writings of 1st-century Jewish philosopher Philo, and that no prior exegesis of the text suggested such a linkage. The "people of Lut" transgressed consciously against the bounds of God. Lot only prayed to God to be saved from doing as they did. Then Gabriel met Lot and said that he must leave the city quickly, as God had given this command to Lot to save his life. In the Quran, it was written that Lot's wife stayed behind, as she had transgressed. She met her fate in the disaster, and only Lot and his family were saved during the destruction of their city, with the understanding that the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are identified in Genesis, but "the location remains unnamed in the Qur'an". The Quran, chapter 15 (The Stoneland) – In the Quran, chapter 26 (The Poets) – Gnosticism A different idea is found in the Paraphrase of Shem, a Gnostic text from the literature of the Nag Hammadi library. In this narrative, the figure Shem, who is guided by a spiritual savior named Derdekeas, brings his universal teaching of secret knowledge (gnosis) to the citizens of Sodom before the city is unjustly destroyed by the base nature of the demon of human form. ==See also==