Origins According to tradition, Zen originated in
ancient India, when
Gautama Buddha held up a flower and
Mahākāśyapa smiled. With this smile he showed that he had understood the wordless essence of the
dharma. This way the dharma was transmitted to Mahākāśyapa, the second patriarch of Zen. The term Zen is derived from the
Japanese pronunciation of the
Middle Chinese word 禪 (
chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (
chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word of
dhyāna ("
meditation"). Buddhism was introduced from India to
China in the first century AD. According to tradition, Chan was introduced around 500 C.E. by
Bodhidharma, an Indian monk teaching
dhyāna. He was the 28th Indian patriarch of Zen and the first Chinese patriarch.
Early Japanese Zen Zen was first introduced into Japan as early as 653-656 C.E. in the
Asuka period (538–710 C.E.), at the time when the set of Zen monastic regulations was still nonexistent and Chan masters were willing to instruct anyone regardless of buddhist ordination.
Dōshō (道昭, 629–700 C.E.) went over to China in 653 C.E., where he learned
Chan from the famed Chinese pilgrim
Xuanzang (玄奘, 602 – 664 C.E.), and he studied more fully with a disciple of the second Chinese patriarch,
Huike (慧可, 487–593 C.E.) . After returning home, Dōshō established the
Hossō school, basing it on Yogācāra philosophy and built a Meditation Hall for the purpose of practising Zen in the
Gangō-ji in
Nara. In the
Nara period (710 to 794 C.E.), the Chan master,
Dao-xuan (道璿, 702-760 C.E.), arrived in Japan, he taught meditation techniques to the monk
Gyōhyō (行表, 720–797 C.E.), who in turn was to instruct
Saichō (最澄, 767-822 C.E.), founder of the Japanese
Tendai sect of Buddhism. Saicho visited
Tang China in 804 C.E. as part of an official embassy sent by
Emperor Kammu (桓武天皇, 781-806 C.E.). There he studied four branches of Buddhism including Chan and
Tiantai, which he was, by that time, already familiar with. The first attempt of establishing Zen as an independent doctrine was in 815, when the Chinese monk
Yikong (義空) visited Japan as the representative of Chan's Southern-school lineage, based on the teachings of the master
Mazu Daoyi (馬祖道一, 709–788 C.E.), who was the mentor of
Baizhang (百丈懐海, 720–814 C.E.), the supposed author of the initial set of Zen monastic regulations. Yikong arrived in 815 C.E. and tried unsuccessfully to transmit Zen systematically to the eastern nation. It is recorded in an inscription left at the famous Rashõmon gate protecting the southern entryway to
Kyoto that, on leaving to return to China, Yikong said he was aware of the futility of his efforts due to hostility and opposition he experienced from the dominant Tendai Buddhist school. What existed of Zen in the
Heian period (794-1185 C.E.) was incorporated into and subordinate to the Tendai tradition. The early phase of Japanese Zen has been labeled "syncretic" because Chan teachings and practices were initially combined with familiar Tendai and
Shingon forms.
Kamakura (1185–1333 C.E.) Zen found difficulties in establishing itself as a separate school in Japan until the 12th century, largely because of opposition, influence, power and criticism by the
Tendai school. During the
Kamakura period (1185–1333 C.E.),
Nōnin established the first independent Zen school on Japanese soil, known as the short-lived and disapproved Daruma school. Decades later, 1235–1308 C.E.) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese
Ōtōkan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai. In 1215 C.E.,
Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the
Caodong master
Rujing. After his return,
Dōgen established the
Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.
Muromachi (or Ashikaga) (1336–1573 C.E.) During the
Muromachi period the Rinzai school was the most successful of the schools, since it was favoured by the
shōgun.
Gozan-system In the beginning of the
Muromachi period the Gozan system was fully worked out. The final version contained five temples of both Kyoto and Kamakura. A second tier of the system consisted of Ten Temples. This system was extended throughout Japan, effectively giving control to the central government, which administered this system. The monks, often well educated and skilled, were employed by the
shōgun for the governing of state affairs.
Rinka-monasteries Not all Rinzai Zen organisations were under such strict state control. The Rinka monasteries, which were primarily located in rural areas rather than cities, had a greater degree of independence. The O-to-kan lineage, that centered on
Daitoku-ji, also had a greater degree of freedom. It was founded by Nampo Jomyo, Shuho Myocho, and Kanzan Egen. A well-known teacher from Daitoku-ji was
Ikkyū.
Azuchi-Momoyama (1573–1600 C.E.) and Edo (or Tokugawa) (1600–1868 C.E.) After a
period of war Japan was re-united in the
Azuchi–Momoyama period. This decreased the power of Buddhism, which had become a strong political and military force in Japan. Neo-Confucianism gained influence at the expense of Buddhism, which came under strict state control. Japan closed the gates to the rest of the world. The only traders to be allowed were Dutchmen admitted to the island of
Dejima. Buddhist institutions had a simple choice: adapt or perish. Rinzai and Soto Zen chose to adapt, trying to modernize Zen in accord with Western insights, while simultaneously maintaining a Japanese identity. This Japanese identity was being articulated in the
Nihonjinron philosophy, the "Japanese uniqueness" theory. A broad range of subjects was taken as typical of Japanese culture. D.T. Suzuki contributed to the Nihonjinron-philosophy by taking Zen as the distinctive token of Asian spirituality, showing its unique character in the Japanese culture This resulted in support for the war activities of the Japanese imperial system by the Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers. According to Sharf, War endeavours against Russia, China and finally during the
Pacific War were supported by the Zen establishment. A notable work on this subject was
Zen at War (1998) by
Brian Victoria, Among them as an example
Hakuun Yasutani, the founder of the
Sanbo Kyodan School, even voiced
antisemitic and nationalistic opinions after
World War II. Only after international protests in the 1990s, following the publication of
Zen at War, did the Sanbo Kyodan express apologies for this support. This involvement was not limited to the Zen schools, as all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the
militarist state. Victoria's particular claims about
D. T. Suzuki's involvement in militarism have been much disputed by other scholars.
Criticisms of post-WWII Zen Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as
Harada Daiun Sogaku and
Shunryū Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty
rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attained realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest's function has largely been reduced to officiating at
funerals, a practice sardonically referred to in Japan as . For example, the Sōtō school published statistics stating that 80 percent of laity visited temples only for reasons having to do with funerals and death. ==Teachings==