Southern Min

Mainland China Southern Min dialects are spoken in southern Fujian, specifically in the cities of Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, and much of Longyan, hence the name. In addition, varieties of Southern Min are spoken in several southeastern counties of Wenzhou in Zhejiang, the Zhoushan archipelago off Ningbo in Zhejiang, the town of Sanxiang at the southern periphery of Zhongshan in Guangdong, parts of Huizhou and Shanwei in Guangdong and in the Chaoshan (Teo-swa) region in Guangdong. The variant spoken in Leizhou, Guangdong as well as that in Hainan is classified as Hainanese and is not mutually intelligible with mainstream Southern Min or Teochew. Hainanese is classified in some schemes as part of Southern Min and in other schemes as separate; Some have even considered this distinction to be at the same level as the Coastal Min – Inland Min distinction. Taiwan The Southern Min dialects spoken in Taiwan, collectively known as Taiwanese, is a first language for most of the Hoklo people, the main ethnic group of Taiwan. The correspondence between language and ethnicity is not absolute, as some Hoklo Taiwanese people have very limited proficiency in Taiwanese while some non-Hoklo Taiwanese people (including Hakkas and Indigenous) speak Taiwanese Southern Min fluently. Southeast Asia There are many Southern Min speakers among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. Many ethnic Chinese immigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian and brought the language to what is now present-day Malaysia and Singapore (formerly British Malaya, the Straits Settlements, and British Borneo), Indonesia (the former Dutch East Indies), the Philippines (former Spanish East Indies and later, US -Philippine Islands), Brunei (former part of British Borneo), Southern Thailand, Myanmar (British Burma), Cambodia (former French Cambodia of French Indochina), Southern Vietnam (former French Cochinchina of French Indochina) and Central Vietnam (former French Annam of French Indochina). In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as Hokkien, Hokkienese, Fukien, or Fookien in Southeast Asia and is mostly mutually intelligible with Hokkien spoken elsewhere. Many Southeast Asian ethnic Chinese also originated in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong and speak Teochew, the variant of Southern Min from that region, particularly Thailand, Cambodia, Southern Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, etc. In the Philippines, Philippine Hokkien is reportedly the native or heritage language of up to 98.7% of the Chinese Filipino community, who refer to it as "Lannang" (; ). Southern Min speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore, with Hokkien being the largest group and the second largest being Teochew. Despite the similarities, the two groups are rarely viewed together as "Southern Min". ==Classification and varieties==

There are two or three major divisions of Southern Min, depending on the criteria for Leizhou and Hainanese inclusion: • Southern Min • Hokkien under the Quanzhang division () • Teochew, Swatow, Jieyang, Haklau Min under the Chaoshan division () • Leizhou and Hainanese dialects under the Qiong-Lei division (). More recently, Kwok (2018: 157) has proposed an alternative classification, with a divergent Northern branch that includes Quanzhou dialect but not Zhangzhou dialect, as shown below: • Southern Min • Northern • Cangnan • Quanzhou, Zihu, Lukang • Central-Southern • Central • Zhangzhou • Longyan, Datian • Southern • Guangdong • ? Haifeng • Jieyang, Chaoyang • Hainan • Leizhou • Haikou Hokkien Hokkien is the most widely spoken form of Southern Min, including Amoy dialect and Taiwanese. Both of these developed as a combination of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou speech. Varieties in South-East Asia include: Singaporean Hokkien, Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien, and Philippine Hokkien (which are closer to Quanzhou Hokkien), and Penang Hokkien and Medan Hokkien (which are closer to Zhangzhou Hokkien). Teochew Teochew is a closely related to Hokkien, with several variants spoken across the Chaoshan region. Some also consider Haklau Min to be part of Teochew. Despite the close relationship, Teochew and Hokkien are different enough in both pronunciation and vocabulary that mutual intelligibility is difficult. Other varieties Zhenan Min, a dialect island in Zhejiang province, is closely related to Quanzhou Hokkien. Haklau Min, spoken around Shanwei and Haifeng, differs markedly from neighbouring Teochew and may represent a later migration from Zhangzhou. Linguistically, it lies between Teochew and Amoy. Datian Min, spoken in Datian County in Fujian province, has been influenced by other Min varieties. Sanxiang Min is spoken in a dialect island in Guangdong province. ==Phonology==

Southern Min has one of the most diverse phonologies of Chinese varieties, with more consonants than Mandarin or Cantonese. Vowels, on the other hand, are more-or-less similar to those of Mandarin. In general, Southern Min dialects have five to six tones, and tone sandhi is extensive. There are minor variations within Hokkien, and the Teochew system differs somewhat more. Southern Min's nasal finals consist of , , , and . Sino-Xenic comparisons Southern Min can trace its origins through the Tang dynasty, and it also has roots from earlier periods. Hokkien people call themselves "Tang people", ('''' /) which is synonymous to "Chinese people". Because of the widespread influence of the Tang culture during the Great Tang dynasty, there are today still many Southern Min pronunciations of words shared by the Sino-xenic pronunciations of Vietnamese, Korean and Japanese languages. ==Writing systems==

Both Hokkien and Teochew have romanized writing systems and also respective Chinese characters. In mainland China, it is known as , while in Taiwan, written Hokkien is known as . Chinese characters are known in China and Taiwan as . In Malaysia and Singapore, they are known as . In the Philippines, they are known as or . The use of Chinese characters to write Hokkien remained largely unsystematic in the Ming and Qing dynasties, when characters were used to transcribe colloquial Southern Min speech in opera scripts, folk stories, and regional texts. Among the earliest extant vernacular Southern Min texts using Chinese characters is the Tale of the Lychee Mirror (), written in a mix of Hokkien and Teochew. Its earliest extant manuscript dates from 1566. Concurrently, Hokkien interaction with Dominican missionaries based in the Philippines led to the translation of Spanish doctrinal literature into Hokkien in Roman script. Early 19th century Protestant missionaries, mostly from Britain and originally based in Malacca, developed a different set of romanization schemes independently. This started with the works of Walter Henry Medhurst, later refined by Samuel Wells Williams and Elihu Doty, and culminated with the script Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ) as promulgated by John Van Nest Talmage, traditionally regarded as the founder of POJ. When Thomas Barclay produced the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News, it showed the establishment of a strong tradition of literacy in Hokkien POJ. The success of POJ resulted in its adaptation into Pe̍h-ūe-jī for Teochew in 1875. Under Japanese rule, POJ was suppressed and then outlawed, with Taiwanese kana becoming the dominant script for Taiwanese Hokkien, although its role in daily life was much reduced. Although after World War II, the Kuomintang initially had a liberal attitude towards Southern Min, the use of POJ was put under ever increasing restrictions, leading to an outright prohibition in the 1970s. With the lifting of martial law and Taiwan’s democratization in the late 1980s and 1990s, the use of Taiwanese Hokkien increased, and various new romanizations were devised. In 2006, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan officially selected one orthography, often known as Tâi-Lô, for pedagogical use in the school system. The following year, it released the first list of Taiwanese Southern Min Recommended Characters, with subsequent lists providing further standardization of the Chinese characters used. ==History==

The Min homeland of Fujian was opened to Han Chinese settlement by the defeat of the Minyue state by the armies of Emperor Wu of Han in 110 BC. The area features rugged mountainous terrain, with short rivers that flow into the South China Sea. Most subsequent migration from north to south China passed through the valleys of the Xiang and Gan rivers to the west, so that Min varieties have experienced less northern influence than other southern groups. As a result, whereas most varieties of Chinese can be treated as derived from Middle Chinese, the language described by rhyme dictionaries such as the Qieyun (601 AD), Min varieties contain traces of older distinctions. Linguists estimate that the oldest layers of Min dialects diverged from the rest of Chinese around the time of the Han dynasty. However, significant waves of migration from the North China Plain occurred. These include: • The Uprising of the Five Barbarians during the Jin dynasty, particularly the Disaster of Yongjia in 311 AD, caused a tide of immigration to the south. • In 669, Chen Zheng and his son Chen Yuanguang from Gushi County in Henan set up a regional administration in Fujian to suppress an insurrection by the She people. • Wang Chao, also from Gushi, moved south to Fujian and was appointed its governor in 893, near the end of the Tang dynasty, and brought tens of thousands of troops from Henan. In 909, following the fall of the Tang dynasty, his younger brother Wang Shenzhi founded the Min Kingdom, one of the Ten Kingdoms in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Jerry Norman identifies four main layers in the vocabulary of modern Min varieties: • A non-Chinese substratum from the original languages of Minyue, which Norman and Mei Tsu-lin believe were Austroasiatic. • The earliest Chinese layer, brought to Fujian by settlers from Zhejiang to the north during the Han dynasty. • A layer from the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, which is largely consistent with the phonology of the Qieyun dictionary. • A literary layer based on the koiné of Chang'an, the capital of the Tang dynasty. ==See also==