The foreign policy maintained by Li Bian has been described as maintaining a "martial conservatism." He recruited disaffected officials exiled from the north who found his realm to have bountiful resources. This made some of the newcomers contemplate its ability to expand territorially. The perceived need for Li Bian to prove his legitimacy through military conquest likewise motivated many Southern Tang officials. Li Bian however felt it was sensible to foster friendly relations with the other southern states. He dispatched ambassadors to the neighboring states of
Jingnan, Min, Southern Han, and Wuyue on 21 November 937 to announce his assumption of the throne. By spring of the following year all four states had sent their own envoys to congratulate Li Bian on becoming emperor. Thus began interactions between the Southern Tang and their neighboring and often competing states. In 941 Li Bian held meetings with his officials about the geopolitical position of the Southern Tang. He felt if the Southern Tang were to invade Wuyue, then the Later Jin would surely launch a counter-attack to protect their vassal. While the Min Kingdom was much easier to conquer, it was also likely to be a financial burden and source of disorder. Both states were much more useful as buffers against the North than areas of expansion. If a propitious opportunity arose to strike the "usurpers and thieves" in control of the Central Plains he declared he would act. After their defeat the Imperial Court would relocate to Chang'an and rebuild the dilapidated city. The restored Tang Empire would then encourage the remaining Southern states to recognize their legitimate rule and submit. Officials pushed for attacking the Later Jin. Li Bian refused to engage in a conflict at that time as he felt it was inopportune: Unlike his father Li Jing pursued territorial expansion against neighboring states. In 945 the Min Kingdom was conquered, although the Wuyue gained control of the prosperous port city Fuzhou. Chu was subjugated in 951 but much of the state was lost in a rebellion against the deeply unpopular Southern Tang administration. According to Sima Guang these initially successful campaigns against Chu and Min made Li Jing grow an "ambition for the empire." Xuan Xu recorded in the Jiangnan Lu that certain officials sent requests to the Imperial Court for the Southern Tang "to secure the four quarters" (經營四方) through military conquest. These typically disastrous schemes were formed by certain officials keen on creating opportunities for their own advancement.
Five Dynasties during the Song dynasty. The term "Five Dynasties" was coined by Song dynasty historians and reflects the view that the successive regimes based in
Bian possessed the
Mandate of Heaven. Compared to regimes of the Central Plains, the Southern Tang were economically prosperous. This created bottlenecks for any army advancing north as long supply trains were required. The Southern Tang military utilized a combination of infantry and naval forces, while cavalry was seldom employed. However, in the open Central Plains cavalry forces held the advantage. Peter A. Lorge concluded that these circumstances made Southern Tang campaigns into the Central Plains logisitically challenging. Hino Kaisaburō has detailed the principle routes used for inland economic and diplomatic exchanges between northern and southern Chinese states. These were the
Grand Canal,
Gan River, and
Xiang River. Control of the Grand Canal was divided between several states, therefore it was the least used route in the era.
Later Jin In 936
Shi Jingtang secured an alliance with the
Yelü Deguang to overthrow his brother-in-law
Li Congke of the
Later Tang with
Khitan forces. He ceded the
Sixteen Prefectures, promised annual tribute, and accepted a subordinate role to Yelü Deguang. In return the Khitan ruler appointed Shi Jingtang as Emperor of the
Later Jin. Throughout his reign Shi Jingtang maintained amicable relations with his overlord, despite criticism from many officials. In the summer of 938
Song Qiqiu proposed for the assassination of a Khitan dignitary that was visiting the Southern Tang court when they returned north through Later Jin territory. He felt that the murder could provoke a war between the Later Jin and the Khitans. While successful in killing the envoy, the harmonious relations between the Later Jin and Khitan continued. In 940 the Southern Tang supported backed a rebellion in the Later Jin territory
Anyuan. Li Bian broke his policy of maintaining peaceable relations with neighboring states in a campaign that ultimately ended in Southern Tang failure. The military commissioner of Anyuan,
Li Jinquan, contacted the Southern Tang with an offer to change allegiance from the Later Jin to the Southern Tang realm. Li Bian accepted the offer and sent an army northwards. Southern Tang forces met up with Li Jinquan as planned. But against Li Bian's commands its commanders ordered the looting
Anlu. Afterwards, the Southern Tang army began to return home. Later Jin forces eventually caught up to the sluggish Southern Tang army and decisively defeated them in Mahuang Valley. The disobedience of his commanders upset Li Bian greatly. In a letter to Shi Jingtang, he claimed his generals were uncontrollable, as they were keen on career advancement through combat, and pressed for amicable relations. Thus, ended Southern Tang pretensions to the Central Plains for the time being. Under the influence of
Jing Yanguang, the second Later Jin Emperor
Shi Chonggui pursued an antagonistic course with his overlord Yelü Deguang. This incensed the Khitan ruler who launched an invasion and defeated Shi Conggui in 946.
Later Han By 947
Liu Zhiyuan had evicted the Khitan forces and established the
Later Han dynasty. Based in modern
Yuncheng,
Shanxi, the Later Han military governor of Huguo Circuit (護國]),
Li Shouzhen, revolted in the summer of 948. He sent envoys to Jinling in the hopes of securing an attack on the Later Han's southern flank. Li Jing was amenable to an intervention and dispatched an army under Li Jinquan from the Huai River. This force reached modern
Shandong, encamping across the Yi River from
Linyi. One evening Later Han forces appeared and attempted to encircle the Southern Tang base. Li Jinquan was able to lead a retreat to the port of
Haizhou with his forces intact. His inaction against the Later Han perturbed Li Jing that Li Lingquan never held another active military posting. After the ignominious withdrawal Li Jing contacted
Liu Chengyou calling for the resumption of trade between the Southern Tang and Later Han. This request was denied and the two states continued to clash in border conflicts throughout 949. In March an army of 10,000 was sent across the border into modern
Anhui. Later Han rebel groups operating there were receptive to accepting Southern Tang rule. While stationed there a Southern Tang army captured
Mengcheng. The Southern Tang commander hesitated when a Later Han army arrived and called for a retreat back to the Huai River. Later that year another army was sent to seize territory across the Huai River. The campaign focused on Zhengyang, a city of strategic importance due to the ease of crossing the Huai River there. As in previous attempts of expanding north the Southern Tang army suffered a defeat from Later Han forces and retreated to the Huai River.
Later Zhou In March 951 the Later Zhou Emperor
Guo Wei decreed in an edict to regulate contact with the Southern Tang: The Southern Tang were initially able to export their tea, salt, and silk without impediment to the Central Plains. Additionally the positive relations allowed the Southern Tang to pursue the conquest of Chu without Later Zhou interference. This period of peaceable interactions quickly deteriorated as Guo Wei enforced his will over northern China. In 952 a member of the deposed Later Han imperial family,
Murong Yanchao, revolted against the Later Zhou. He was able to court military intervention from the Northern Han and the Southern Tang although neither actually provided much assistance. At the time the Southern Tang were experiencing great difficulty in securing their recent conquests in the kingdom of Chu. Their unpopular administration provoked provincial revolts. The Southern Han meanwhile began an invasion to secure
Lingnan. These military pressures likely explain why Li Jing only sent 5,000 troops to assist Murong Yanchao. The Southern Tang army reached
Xiapi before Later Zhou resistance was met. Pushed south of
Xuzhou, the Southern Tang lost a pitched battle and lost over 1,000 troops. Despite this failure, court officials pushed for conquering the Later Zhou.
Han Xizai advised strongly against the idea as he felt Guo Wei was in a position of power. Li Jing ultimately concurred and ceased hostilities. In spring 955 Emperor
Chai Rong was advised to strike the lengthy and porous Southern Tang border. Simultaneously Southern Tang defensive procedures were reduced along the seasonally shallow Huai River in winter 955, leaving their border easy to cross. Later Zhou forces advanced south and constructed a floating bridge to cross the Huai River at Zhengyang and began the invasion of Huainan in early 956. The crucially important city of
Shouchun became encircled by the Later Zhou but resisted them for 14 months. Throughout the conflict incompetent military officers made critical errors that ended in a string of costly defeats for the Southern Tang. By April 958 Shouchun had fallen and the Later Zhou were advancing upon the capital of Jinling. The Southern Tang offered to cede all territory north of the Yangtze to the Later Zhou and become a vassal. The Later Zhou gained control over Huainan and almost a quarter million families.
Ten Kingdoms Leadership across the Ten Kingdoms did not see a politically unified China under a centralized bureaucracy as necessarily inevitable. Their sovereignty was revoked only through force of arms. Conceptually there could only be one Son of Heaven but regional autonomy was still possible. Some kingdoms nominally accepted the suzerianity of the Five Dynasties. Several rulers simultaneously claimed to be emperors and still engaged in diplomatic exchanges with each other despite this breach of imperial orthodoxy.
Min Wang Yanxi sent
Zhu Wenjin in 938 to represent the Min court and praised Li Bian for his assumption of the throne. In January 940 Min representatives renewed arrangements previously made with the Southern Tang. Throughout the early 940s the Min Emperor Wang Yanxi faced strife with his rebellious brother
Wang Yanzheng. In 943 Wang Yanzheng seized the northwest regions of Min and formed the
Kingdom of Yin. By February 945 Wang Yanxin had died and Wang Yanzheng reunited Min. The Southern Tang invaded soon afterwards. On 2 October 945 Jianzhou fell and Wang Yangzheng was captured. The majority of Min territory was now under Southern Tang rule.
Li Renda controlled the affluent port of
Fuzhou. He initially submitted to Li Jing but was attacked after Southern Tang officials fabricated orders for his surrender. Li Renda appealed to
Qian Hongzuo of
Wuyue for aid. Throughout winter 946 and spring 947 Wuyue forces arrived on naval transports to protect their new vassal. The Wuyue and Fuzhou garrison killed over 20,000 Southern Tang troops. The siege was lifted and the war soon came to a close. The conflict had incurred many expenses and for the Southern Tang and drained their treasury. The Southern Tang gained control of the Jianzhou and Tingzhou prefectures, while the Wuyue secured the area around Fuzhou. Control over the coastal prefectures of
Quanzhou and
Zhangzhou by
Liu Congxiao was recognized by the Southern Tang, who appointed him
Qingyuan Jiedushi. This vassal state maintained de facto autonomy from the Southern Tang until forcible incorporation into the Song dynasty three decades later.
Wuyue The Wuyue had antagonistic relations with Wu and several conflicts occurred between the latter's pretensions to Min territory. The rulers of Wuyue maintained a status of vassal to the Northern dynasties as this protected them against Wu and later Southern Tang aggression. If attacked, their northern suzerians could strike at Southern Tang territories along the Huai River. This kept the Southern Tang and Wuyue in a state of equilibrium. When Li Bian sent messengers announcing his assumption to the throne; the Wuyue were the first to send their congratulations. In January 941 emissaries presented gifts from Wuyue to celebrate Li Bian's birthday. In August 941 the Wuyue capital of Hangzhou was devastated by fires. The ensuing chaos greatly distressed Qian Yuanguan, who died soon afterwards. Southern Tang military officers pushed for an invasion to seize Wuyue. Li Bian demurred to the idea: "How can I take advantage of the calamity of other people?" Instead, an army from Li Bian sent out foodstuffs for the beleaguered people of Hangzhou. An opportune time to strike at a major rival of the Southern Tang was therefore passed over. Dialogue between the two states apparently ended in 942 due to their mutual contentions over Min. Wuyue became entangled in the Southern Tang conquest of Min. They sent forces to Fuzhou throughout winter 946 and spring 947. The combined forces of the Fuzhou garrison and Wuyue army defeated the Southern Tang in the Battle of Fuzhou. Subsequently, Fuzhou joined the Wuyue domain as a vassal. The Wuyue participated in the Later Zhou invasion of the Southern Tang. In 956 armies were sent capture
Changzhou Xuanzhou. Changzhou was put under siege but the Wuyue army suffered heavy losses against a Southern Tang relief force. This defeat made the Wuyue army sent against Xuanzhou retreat before reaching the city. The Wuyue did not try attacking the Southern Tang again until 958 when Later Zhou victory was apparent. 20,000 troops were sent to assist in the final stages of the campaign. Li Yu pleaded for military assistance from
Qian Chu At the beginning of the
Song conquest of Southern Tang. The Wuyue ruler instead forwarded the letter to Emperor Taizu. Quan Chu joined his suzerain in attacking the Southern Tang. Changzhou and
Runzhou were seized. Wuyue forces joined the Song siege of Jinling.
Chu To secure his uncertain position
Ma Xi'e became a vassal of the Southern Tang in 951.
Bian Hao and a 10,000 strong Tang force was sent to the Chu capital of Tanzhou. Ma Xi'e invited them into the city but was deposed in December 951. The majority of Chu territory was now in Southern Tang possession. Officials argued that Bian Hao needed to be replaced due to his incompetence, or the former Chu realm would be lost. Li Jing however took no heed. Liu Yan gathered a coalition of former Chu troops and launched attacks on Southern Tang positions across Hunan. Bian Hao fled Tanzhou on 1 December 952. Liu Yan submitted to the Later Zhou in order to protect against a potentially revanchist Southern Tang. Thus Li Jing's effort to control Hunan ended in an embarrassing rout.
Southern Han The Southern Han sent envoys in 940 to reconfirm agreements made with Southern Tang. In 941 the Southern Han proposed for the partition of the Chu realm. However, Li Bian was unwilling to commit to the enterprise. The same year they sent gifts to celebrate Li Bian's birthday. Taking advantage of the Southern Tang invasion of Chu, in winter 951
Liu Sheng launched a successful invasion to secure
Lingnan. The Southern Tang counterattack ended in failure and the Southern Han secured their territorial gains.
Liao dynasty riders hunting with eagles. Painting by Hu Gui (胡瓌), 10th century The Khitan were an important partner for the Southern Tang. Positive relations were used to counter the threat posed by the Central Plains regimes and their Wuyue vassal. Dialog and gift exchanges were frequent during Li Bian's rule. He sent ambassadors to the Khitan court at Shangjing to announce the start of his reign. In correspondence Yelü Deguang and Li Bian referred to each other as brothers. This demonstrated the favorable opinion the Khitan held of the southern state compared to the reigning Later Tang. In 938 both Yelü Deguang and his brother
Yelü Lihu dispatched gifts to Li Bian. Later that year a group of Khitan envoys visited with an impressive herd of 35,000 sheep and 300 horses. In return for the livestock the Khitan received medicinal supplies, silk, and tea. The Southern Tang court financed a piece called "Two Qidan Bringing Tribute" by an unnamed artist in honor of these proceedings. The painting symbolized the importance put on relations with the Khitan by Li Bian. Contact between the two states was blocked by the Central Plains regimes. Consequently, a naval route was developed. Starting at
Chunzhou Southern Tang ships sailed north along the coastline until the
Shandong Peninsula, where ships crossed the
Yellow Sea and landed at the
Liaodong Peninsula. The Khitans sent six diplomatic missions to the Southern Tang between 938 and 943. In 940 Khitan envoys presented Li a snow-fox fur robe. In both 941 and 942 the Southern Tang sent three diplomatic missions to the Khitans. After being insulted by an antagonistic Shi Chonggui, Yelü Deguang destroyed the Later Jin in 946. In early 947 he founded the
Liao dynasty as Emperor Taizong after entering Bian. Shortly afterwards Taizong offered Li Jing to become the "ruler of the Central Plains." This proposal was rejected, potentially due to the Southern Tang considering themselves culturally superior to the Khitan. Receiving the Central Plains, rather than conquering it, would have left the legitimacy of the Southern Tang far from certain. Nonetheless, Li Jing praised Taizong of Liao for dethroning the Later Jin and petitioned him to allow the Southern Tang to repair the dilapidated Imperial Tang tombs of
Chang'an. The request was denied and greatly infuriated Li Jing who then ordered meetings to formulate an invasion of the Central Plains. Han Xizai advised the Southern Tang Emperor to capture Bian at this time: Despite the motions made by the Khitan in founding an imperial dynasty, they treated the conquest as a "very large scale raid." Taizong soon departed for the Khitan homeland in March 947 and died on the journey Meanwhile, the Southern Tang were embroiled in a war of conquest against Min. This left them unable to effectively pursue a northern invasion. The campaign ended successfully late in 947. By this point however Liu Zhiyuan had already captured Bian from the Khitan and founded the Later Han dynasty. The opportunity to move against the north had been missed by the Southern Tang. Efforts by the Southern Tang to secure an alliance with the Liao against the northern dynasties continued to flounder. In 948 Liao and Southern Tang officials formulated a joint attack against the Later Han. Yet the Liao delayed for over a year. Once they did attack the Later Han, Khitan forces only raided
Hebei. When
Muzong took the Liao throne, securing aid became more difficult for the Southern Tang. He was far less interested in participating in Chinese affairs than his predecessors. In 955 the Later Zhou began a campaign to subdue the Southern Tang. Li Jing requested military intervention by Muzong. His brother-in-law was sent to Tanzhou as an envoy to the Southern Tang in 959. The Liao were treated to a sumptuous feast by their Southern Tang hosts. Spies loyal to the Later Zhou were among those present. Muzong's brother-in-law was beheaded by the Later Zhou spies. The Liao court was unaware that the Later Zhou perpetrated the murder. Muzong furiously revoked all contact with Li Jing, ending Liao-Southern Tang relations.
Goryeo In 936
Taejo united the
Korean Peninsula under
Goryeo. The newly formed state bordered the Khitans. The Later Jin reigned as a Khitan vassal which made them undesirable to the Koreans. The strategic position of Goryeo was likely valued by the Southern Tang as a means to threaten the Khitan. Taejo sent a tribute mission to the Southern Tang in the summer of 938. A variety of locally produced goods were presented to Li Bian. Another mission from the Korean Peninsula arrived at Jinling in 938. The group was likely private traders from the recently conquered
Silla. A later mission from Goryeo brought more goods as tribute in 940. ==Decline==