Indigenous cuisine before colonization Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods in early American cuisine that have been blended with the methods of early Europeans to form the basis of what is now Southern cuisine. Prior to the 1600s, native peoples lived off the land in very diverse bioregions and had done so for thousands of years, often living a nomadic life where their diet changed with the season. Many practiced a form of agriculture revolving around the
Three Sisters, the rotation of
beans,
maize, and
squash as staples of their diet.
Wild game was equally a staple of nearly every tribe: generally, deer, elk, and bison were staples, as were rabbits and hare. The
Cherokee of the Southern Appalachians used blowguns made of an indigenous type of bamboo to hunt squirrels. Native Americans introduced the first non-Native American Southerners to many other vegetables still familiar on southern tables.
Squash,
pumpkin, many types of
beans, many types of
peppers, and
sassafras all came to the settlers via Indigenous peoples. The Virginia
Algonquian word
pawcohiccora means
hickory-nut meat or a
nut milk drink made from it. Many
fruits are available in this region.
Muscadines,
blackberries,
raspberries, and many other wild berries were part of Southern Native Americans' diet.
Colonial era 1513 to 1776 and Antebellum era 1776 to 1861 is a British dish. Black-eyed peas are from West Africa. Rice dishes were prepared by enslaved African Americans, Europeans, and Native Americans. Southern food has influences from
Native American,
European, and
West African cuisines and foods. From
corn Southeastern Native American tribes made grits, cornmeal mush, corn chowder, hush puppies, and cornbread that were adapted by European settlers and enslaved Africans cuisine called
soul food. Another Native American influence in Southern cuisine is fried green tomatoes. Squash was - and continues to be - cooked by Native Americans and has a long shelf life when not cooked, and because of its long shelf-life African Americans and European Americans placed it in their kitchens. An additional Native American influence in Southern cuisine is the use of
maple syrup. Settlers used honey and Indigenous people used maple syrup to sweeten and add flavor to dishes; this influenced the foodways of enslaved Africans and European settlers as they used maple syrup to sweeten their dishes and poured syrup over pancakes and other breakfast foods. Other Indigenous influences are dried meats, smoked fish, and preparing meals with deer, rabbit, turtle, catfish, and eating local strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, and cranberries. Foods cultivated by
Indigenous people in the
Western Hemisphere influenced Southern and global cuisine. The first European nation to colonize the mainland portion of North America was
Spain in the early 16th century in the year 1513 under
Juan Ponce de León. In the year 1565, Spanish explorer
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés established a settlement in
St. Augustine, Florida and was accompanied by free and enslaved Africans. Two
Spanish expeditions encountered the Apalachee in the first half of the 16th century. The expedition of
Pánfilo de Narváez entered the Apalachee domain in 1528, and arrived at a village, which Narváez believed was the main settlement in Apalachee. The
Apalachee Indigenous people influenced the foodways of Spanish colonists in Florida. Apalachee people prepared meals with hunted animals such as deer, rabbit, raccoon, and
turkey (a bird indigenous to North America). They grew in their gardens corn, beans, squash, and sunflowers, and foraged for wild berries and nuts. From these food sources the Apalachee made stews and sweet flavored dishes. Spanish colonists enjoyed Native American cacina tea and turkey.
New Spain was in the present-day southern states of Florida and Louisiana. An article from the Florida Department of State explains the influence of the Spaniards in Southern cuisine: "The Spanish brought many foods to Florida (and the Americas) that are commonly eaten today. One major change to the landscape of Florida was the Spanish introduction of domesticated animals to provide favored meats, like beef, pork, and chicken! Olive oil and wine (brought over to the colonies in large earthenware jars) were essential staples for any Spanish kitchen. Fruits (like peaches, figs, and watermelons), nuts and beans (like almonds, field peas, and garbanzo beans) and spices (like saffron, cinnamon, and different types of peppers) were brought to Florida from all over the world." have Scottish and West African influences. The
British established a permanent settlement in
Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. They brought their food traditions from London that influenced Southern cuisine.
British cuisine has cured and aged
ham and English bread. These foods were augmented in colonial Jamestown with North American ingredients. For example, the ham dishes in Britain became Virginia hams, and English breads became hot breads and other sweets. However, the predominant cooks in Virginia's kitchens were enslaved African Americans. Enslaved cooks in white
plantation homes combined food traditions from West Africa with Native American and European cooking methods and prepared new dishes that influenced Southern cuisine, such as
fried okra. The origin of fried chicken in the southern states of America has been traced to precedents in
Scottish and
West African cuisine. Scottish fried chicken was battered with seasonings and cooked in
lard, later West African fried chicken added different seasonings, and was battered and cooked in
palm oil. In the 17th and 18th centuries, English colonists in
Virginia came into contact with
Powhatan Indigenous people and adapted corn into their cuisine and Johnny cakes, corn pone, and fry bread became a part of their diet. English settlers at
Jamestown were not prepared on how to survive in Virginia's wilderness. Settlers experienced the "
starving time" in the winter of 1609 to 1610. Powhatan people taught the English how to hunt, fish and grow corn to survive. The food and survival skills English settlers learned from Natives became a part of their diet and cuisine. However, most Jamestown's residents did not survive that winter because of dwindling food supplies. Colonial
Williamsburg, Virginia was founded in 1632 by the English. Historians at
Colonial Williamsburg researched colonial records and found what colonists in Williamsburg ate. The dishes colonial cooks prepared for Williamsburg's upper class were roast pigeon, fried ox tongue, mince pies, made meat dishes from beef, lamb, pork, chicken, and fish with vegetables, and made baked breads. For beverages they drank coffee, tea and chocolate. An article in the newspaper,
The Warren Record, explains the influence of the English and Scottish on Southern American food: "English settlers in the South baked yeast bread, made savory puddings and drank beer...." "Settlers from lowland Scotland brought with them a tradition of cooking a kale soup and drinking distilled beverages." English and Scottish settlers introduced
biscuits into Southern breakfast. In England and Ireland people ate biscuits as part of a meal and were taken aboard ships during long voyages because they lasted longer and did not spoil like other foods. In the Southern United States, Americans evolved the recipe and made fluffier biscuits and poured gravy, honey and jam over them which became a popular breakfast item. Biscuits were an economical food for Southerners after the mid-19th century as they were made with simple ingredients of flour,
baking powder, salt, butter, and milk. In 1614, the Dutch established several settlements in Maryland and other Northern colonies. Dutch colonists introduced
pancakes,
waffles,
doughnuts,
cookies,
coleslaw and
pretzels into the
cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies. Colonial records showed Dutch people brought their
waffle irons from the Netherlands to colonial America. The English and
Dutch introduced
pies and Dutch settlers introduced deep-dish crust
pie recipes which enslaved African Americans and other Southerners adapted into their cuisine. The first documented pie recipe in
Colonial America was in 1675; it was a pumpkin pie recipe modified from British spiced and boiled squash. European settlers prepared pies because they preserved food. They made meat and sweet pies using local ingredients and other ingredients from foreign countries. An article from
Southern Living Magazine explains the history of the Southern American pie tradition: "The mixture of eggs, butter, sugar, vanilla, and flour made its way to the American South from
England. It became popular in Virginia and has had many incarnations, from the Classic
Chess Pie to fruity versions, like Lemon Chess Pie." in South Carolina originated from West African
jollof rice. Enslaved Africans influence in Southern cuisine are food items from West Africa such as okra, black-eyed peas, one-pot rice cooking methods to make stews that influenced the making of
gumbo and
jambalaya, and adding a variety of spices and hot and sweet sauces to Southern dishes. West-Central Africans were trafficked to the South as early as 1526 under Spanish explorers to the colonies of South Carolina and Georgia called
San Miguel de Gualdape, and enslaved people from
Angola were brought to colonial
Virginia in 1619. Other foods brought from West Africa during the slave trade that influenced Southern cuisine were
guinea pepper,
gherkin,
sesame seeds,
kola nuts, eggplant,
watermelon, rice, and cantaloupe.
Gullah Geechee people in the
Sea Islands of South Carolina and Georgia influenced some of the Southern rice-based dishes. West Africans in the rice growing regions of present-day
Senegal,
Sierra Leone, and
Liberia cultivated
African rice for about 3,000 years. African rice is a species related to, yet distinct from,
Asian rice. It was originally domesticated in the inland delta of the Upper
Niger River. Once Carolinian and Georgian
planters in the American South discovered that African rice would grow in that region, they often sought enslaved Africans from rice-growing regions because they had the skills and knowledge needed to develop and build irrigation, dams and earthworks. The rice-based dished created by Gullah people are
Charleston red rice and
Hoppin' John. Enslaved African Americans grew collard greens in their gardens. They incorporated collards in their soups and stews a tradition that came from West Africa. As the
National Museum of African American History and Culture explained that African Americans in the American South spread the recipe of collard greens to other parts of the United States when they left the South during the
Great Migration. . The
French established a permanent settlement in the South in present-day
New Orleans, Louisiana in 1718. French colonists relied on Indigenous people to survive. As historian Gwendolyn Midlo Hall explained how the French learned from the
Chitimacha and other Indigenous people about the flora and fauna, topography of the land, how to build boats and navigate the waters, how to preserve food, and cultivate corn, squash, potatoes, and other indigenous crops. The first enslaved Africans to arrive in Louisiana came in 1719 aboard two slave ships that brought several barrels of rice seeds.
African rice became a staple in Louisiana cuisine cultivated by enslaved people from West Africa's rice growing regions.
French people incorporated
roux into Louisiana cuisine that influenced the making of
gumbo. Another French influence is
mirepoix made with carrots, celery, and onion that became a Creole and Cajun version in Louisiana called the "holy trinity" made with bell peppers, celery and onions.
Indigenous peoples of Louisiana during the colonial period (and into present day) made fry bread and Indian tacos. They also prepared meals with hunted animals such as turkey and deer and caught fish. Native Americans in Louisiana influenced the foodways of African Americans and European Americans as non-Natives prepared their meals with turkey, cornbread, and other Indigenous staples. Spaniards and enslaved West Africans influenced the making of
jambalaya in New Orleans. Some historians suggest jambalaya has its roots in West African cuisine. The French introduced the
tomato (a food native to the Americas) to West Africans, and they incorporated the food into their one-pot rice cooking meals and enhanced
jollof rice and created jambalaya. Author Ibraham Seck, director of research at the
Whitney Plantation Slave Museum in St. John the Baptist Parish, suggests jambalaya originated on the
Senegalese coast of West Africa. Senegalese people had knowledge of rice cultivation and created dishes using rice and meats that were brought to Louisiana during the era of the slave trade. About sixty percent of enslaved Africans brought to Louisiana came from
Senegambia. Senegambians had knowledge of rice cultivation and prepared meals using rice and other grains adding meat and vegetables into one pot. An article from the United Nations states that the cuisines of Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea, and Benin influenced the development of jambalaya: "Jambalaya (mixed rice, meat and vegetables), feijoada (black beans and meat), gombo(okra), and hopping johns (peas) are all dishes that have been re-adapted from Senegal, Nigeria, Guinea and Benin. You will find variations of these dishes in America and the Caribbean region." .
German immigrants came to colonial America beginning in 1608 and helped to start the colony of
Jamestown, Virginia and established settlements in the
Shenandoah Valley. They brought their food traditions from Germany and influenced cuisine in America. The classic southern dish
chicken and dumplings have origins in
German cuisine. "...the famous southern dish, Chicken and Dumplings, received its birth from the German influence of
Spaetzel, which are small potato dumplings, even smaller than its Italian cousin, gnocchi." Other German influences are liver beef dishes,
German sausages, and liver dumplings.
German people also influenced cuisine in Louisiana after their arrival to the colony in 1722. For example, "German sausage making is called andouille. Andouille sausage is a combination of pork, pork fat, salt, garlic, red pepper and black pepper, all packed into a sausage casing, which is smoked over sugar cane and pecan logs. When smoked, the sausage becomes very dark in color." This method of preparation of sausage is found in between St. Charles and St. John Baptist parishes. German foods such as marinated meats, pastries, sour flavors, and wursts were assimilated into the Southern diet and they became classic American foods that are eaten today in the form of
hot dogs and
hamburgers. The Southern side dish
potato salad have German influences. An article from South Carolina National Public Radio (NPR) explains: Culinary historians do not know who added mayonnaise to potato salad. Mayonnaise became available to purchase in the early 1900s. By the 1920s and 1930s, people were adding mayonnaise to potato salad.
American Civil War (1861 to 1865) , Virginia During the
American Civil War, food supplies were limited for
Union and
Confederate soldiers. Civil War soldiers received limited
food rations which consisted of bread, coffee, salt pork, hard bread, a pound of beef or pork and a pound of bread or flour, and sometimes extras which included dried beans or peas, rice, vinegar, and
molasses. Historians found that a lot of food was fried during the Civil War. An article from the Florida Department of State explains the soldier's diet: "The most common form of hard bread, was called
hardtack, a basic wheat biscuit that did not easily decay and could survive a rough march. It was extremely hard, and was often soaked in water, coffee, or in meat fat to soften it enough to eat. Other items, such as beans, peas, rice, coffee, sugar, or salt, were also issued, but not on a daily basis." Enslaved African Americans prepared meals for wealthy Confederate soldiers. In Union camps,
contraband of war (Freedmen) and other cooks prepared meals for the Union army. Over time, rations between Union and Confederate armies varied as Confederate rations were reduced in wheat and livestock because of a Union blockade that prevented the Confederates from obtaining food and supplies. Hardtack was not available to many Confederates because it was made from wheat, and wheat was not grown in many Southern states except for Georgia and Virginia. Cornbread replaced the hardtack rations in the Confederate army. Confederate soldiers made Johnnie cakes and "corn dodgers" that was similar to hardtack. In addition, they made fried flatbread and balls of cornmeal called "flapjacks" cooked over an open fire, and ate bacon, imitation coffee, and
molasses. In some Southern hospitals patients ate dried fruit, potatoes, mush, beef,
chicken soup, and bread. Despite limited rations, some Union soldiers were able to make hearty meals. The meals prepared were "...chicken fricassee, mushroom ketchup (a condiment made by boiling mushrooms), a beef-and-potato stew, cornish game hens and ham and beans." Union and Confederates foraged for food when rations were low and cooked the fresh food they found. They also ate
desiccated vegetables which were dehydrated and compressed vegetables into one inch by one-foot rectangular bricks that were made from string beans, turnips, carrots, beets, and onions. Other vegetables were packed into cakes, dried, and boiled for consumption.
Post antebellum era Interest in American regional cooking continued to grow after the Civil War, especially concerning the traditions of the Southern United States. Many new cookbooks were added to the existing body of literature. Some of these fell within the scope of domestic manuals offering instruction to southern homemakers to the maintenance of homes in the new post-Slavery era. Some of these works like
Mary Stuart Smith's
Virginia Cookery Book (1885) aimed to preserve the culinary heritage of the South. Recipes made by former slaves were published in African-American cookbooks after the Civil War. The earliest such cookbook was self-published in 1866 by
Malinda Russell as a pamphlet titled,
A Domestic Cookbook: Containing a Careful Selection of Useful Receipts for the Kitchen. A cookbook published in 1900 in the city of
Charleston, South Carolina had recipes used by formerly enslaved
Gullah people.
Benne seeds from
sesame, a plant native to West Africa, were eaten raw with sugar or milk. Enslaved people also made cakes, wafers, and brittles from them for white plantation families. In the
Appalachian region, 19th-century meals included greens fried in
bear grease,
elk backstrap steaks and
venison stew. Ashcakes were cornbread cooked directly on hearth coals. many Southern or originally-Southern chains offer biscuits and gravy, and when McDonald's introduced a new breakfast menu selling either Egg McMuffins (with English muffins) or a variant with biscuits, the biscuit zone was practically a map of the South with the exception of
Virginia,
Maryland, and
Florida. The American
hot dog originated from German sausages called "frankfurts" in
Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany. Sausages in Germany were served without bread.
Charles L Feltman was a German immigrant and came to
Coney Island, New York in 1856 and served sausages wrapped in a bun beginning in 1867. This method of eating sausages later spread across America making its way into the Southern states and are eaten at baseball games. Southerners make different versions of hot dogs, giving them a southern flavor. Some Southern hot dogs have brown sugar mustard as a topping. In
Huntsville, Alabama, hot dogs are served with chili and ketchup-slaw. In
Mobile, Alabama, hot dogs are served on a toasted bun with a mustard-based coleslaw.
Other cultural influences Since the 20th century into present day, immigrants from Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and other European countries brought their cuisines to the South and influenced southern cuisine. An article from
Time Magazine explains: "...immigrants and their American-born sons and daughters have helped transform the perception of Southern cuisine into something beyond biscuits and gravy and mint juleps. Southern food is now kebabs in Nashville's Little Kurdistan, one of the largest enclaves of Kurds in the U.S. It's Greek diners across Alabama and Ethiopian restaurants standing next to Salvadoran pupuserías in Virginia. In rural towns that have seen their populations decline, it's the Chinese or Mexican restaurant that took over former greasy spoons while preserving them as de facto community centers. And in reborn urban centers, it's the Michelin-approved fine-dining restaurants where chefs have fused techniques from India, Laos and Nigeria with the staples of the Southern canon."
Mexican food culture influence on Southern cuisine is
tacos.
Texas was once a part of Mexico until it declared independence on March 2, 1836, and became a US state in 1845.
Tex-Mex food is a fusion of
Texas cuisine with Northern Mexican. Tacos in Texas have barbecued meats from pork, chicken,
brisket, vegetables, and Mexican
salsa.
Indigenous people of Texas hunted pronghorn, deer, rabbits, turkeys, and quail. They made flour from ground acorns and mesquite pods. The Indigenous nations of the
Antelope Creek in the Panhandle, the
Caddo in East Texas, and the
Jornada Mogollon near El Paso influenced Southern foodways as venison, catfish, and pecans are staples in Texas cuisine. The
Tejanos are a multiethnic people of Spanish and Native American heritage, and their food influenced Texas cuisine. A common dish in Texas is
chili con carne made with cumin, black pepper, garlic, onion, and beef are all foreign imported foods, and the chiles come from
Mexico.
Tamale is a dish native to Central America and Mexico. The Tejanos' Indigenous ancestors brought tamales to Texas.
Southern food in restaurants . Chains serving Southern foods—often along with American
comfort food—have had great success; many have spread across the country
or across the world, while others have chosen to stay in the South. Pit barbecue is popular all over the American South; unlike the rest of the country, most of the rural South has locally owned, non-franchise pit-barbecue restaurants, many serving
the regional style of barbecue instead of the nationally predominant
Kansas City style. Family-style restaurants serving Southern cuisine are common throughout the South, and range from the humble and down-home to the decidedly upscale. During the
civil rights movement,
soul food restaurants were places where civil rights leaders and activists met to discuss and strategize civil rights protests and ideas for implementing social and political change.
Paschal's Restaurant in Atlanta, like
Georgia Gilmore's eatery in Montgomery, had an important part in the civil rights movement. Upon returning to Atlanta from Montgomery,
Martin Luther King Jr. got permission "to bring his team members and guests to Paschal's to eat, meet, rest, plan, and strategize." ==Traditional Southern dishes==