Anuradhapura period (377 BC–1017) The Theravāda ("Elders") is a branch of the
Vibhajjavāda ("Doctrine of Analysis", "the analysts") school, which was a division of the
Sthāvira Nikāya, one of the Indian
early Buddhist schools. The Sthāviras had emerged from
the first schism in the Buddhist community. There is no agreement among modern historians on the details and dating of this
schism (even on if it was before or after the date of the emperor
Ashoka: 304–232 BCE). It is notable that
Ashokan inscriptions do not refer to this council or the schism. According to Theravāda sources, the Theravāda school maintains the Vibhajjavāda doctrines that were agreed upon during the putative
Third Buddhist council held around 250 BCE under the patronage of Ashoka and the guidance of the elder
Moggaliputta-Tissa. A record of their doctrinal position survives in the
Kathavatthu ("Points of Controversy"), a refutation of various opposing views of various schools at the time. The Vibhajjavādins, fueled by
Mauryan patronage (as can be seen in Ashoka's edicts), spread throughout South Asia, forming different groups and communities. In South India, they had an influential center at
Avanti, as well as being active in
Andhra, Vanavasa (in modern
Karnataka),
Amaravati and
Nagarjunakonda. As they became established in Sri Lanka (at
Anuradhapura), they also started to become known as the
Tambapaṇṇiya (Sanskrit: Tāmraśāṭīya, Tāmraparṇīya), the name refers to a red copper-like colour. The name
Tāmraparṇi also became a name for Sri Lanka itself.
Introduction of Buddhism to the island .|left , the tree under which the Buddha attained
awakening. According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles such as the
Mahavamsa and the
Dipavamsa, Buddhism was introduced into the island in the third century BCE after the
Third Buddhist council by the elder
Mahinda and by the elder nun
Sanghamitta. According to the Sri Lankan chronicles, both were children of the emperor
Ashoka. Although Ashoka's Edicts mention sending a Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka (among many other places), nowhere do the edicts specifically mention Mahinda or Sanghamitta. Thus, the claims aren't fully accepted by modern scholars. According to the
Mahavamsa, they arrived in Sri Lanka during the
Anuradhapura period in the reign of
Devanampiya Tissa (307–267 BCE) who converted to Buddhism and helped build the first Buddhist stupas and communities. Tissa donated a royal park in the city to the Buddhist community, which was the beginning of the
Mahāvihāra tradition. Mahinda is associated with the site of
Mihintale, one of the oldest Buddhist site in Sri Lanka. Mihintale includes numerous caves which may have been used by the early Sri Lankan sangha. According to S. D. Bandaranayake, the spread of Buddhism in this period was promoted by the state as well as by lay persons. While there are few artistic or architectural remains from this initial period, there are hundreds of Buddhist caves that have survived that contain numerous
Brahmi inscriptions which record gifts to the sangha by householders and chiefs. Bandaranayake states that the religion seems to have achieved "undisputed authority" during the reigns of
Dutugamy and
Valagamba (c. mid-2nd century BCE to mid-1st century BCE). Over much of the early history of Anuradhapura Buddhism, there were three subdivisions of Theravāda, consisting of the
Mahāvihāra,
Abhayagiri and
Jetavana sects. All three were based in Anuradhapura, the large and populous capital of the ancient Sinhalese kings, which saw themselves as the defenders and supporters of Buddhism. The Mahāvihāra was the first tradition to be established, while Abhayagiri Vihāra and Jetavana Vihāra were established by monks who had broken away from Mahāvihāra and were more open to Mahayana. According to
A. K. Warder, the Indian
Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka alongside the Theravāda, into which they were later absorbed. Northern regions of Sri Lanka also seem to have been ceded to sects from India at certain times. Abhayagiri Theravādins maintained close relations with Indian Buddhists over the centuries, adopting many of the latter's teachings, including many Mahāyāna elements, whereas
Jetavana Theravādins adopted Mahāyāna to a lesser extent. The Mahāvihāra tradition meanwhile considered many of the Mahāyāna doctrines, such as
Lokottaravāda ("transcendentalism"), as heretical and considered the
Mahāyāna sutras as being counterfeit scriptures. Religious debate and conflict among these sects were also not unusual, particularly because the close relationship between the sangha and Sinhalese rulers led to competition for royal patronage, though most rulers supported all sects. During the reign of
Voharika Tissa (209–31 CE), the Mahāvihāra tradition convinced the king to repress the Mahāyān teachings, which they saw as incompatible with the true doctrine. The tables were turned during the reign of the king
Mahasena (277 to 304 CE), which was marked by his support of Mahāyāna Buddhism and repression of the Mahāvihāra, which refused to convert to Mahāyāna. Mahasena went as far as to destroy some of the buildings of the Mahāvihāra complex to build up Abhayagiri and a new monastery, the Jetavana. Due to this, Abhiyagiri emerged as the largest and most influential Buddhist tradition on the island, and the Mahāvihāra tradition would not regain its dominant position until the
Polonnaruwa period in 1055. During the reign of
Kithsirimevan (301–328 CE), Sudatta, the sub-king of
Kalinga, and Hemamala brought the
Tooth Relic of the Buddha to Sri Lanka. Kithsirimevan enshrined the relic and ordered a procession to be held annually in its honour. The Tooth Relic of the Buddha soon became one of the most sacred objects in the country, and a symbol of Sinhala
Buddhist kingship. It was housed and promoted by the Abhayagiri tradition. When the Chinese monk
Faxian visited the island in the early 5th century, he noted 5000 monks at Abhayagiri, 3000 at the Mahāvihāra, and 2000 at the Cetiyapabbatavihāra. Faxian also obtained a Sanskrit copy of the Vinaya of the Mahīśāsaka at the Abhayagiri vihāra (c. 406). This was then translated into Chinese and remains extant in the
Chinese Buddhist canon as
Taishō Tripiṭaka 1421. The main architectural feature of Sri Lankan Buddhism at this time was the dome-shaped
stupa, which enshrined Buddhist relics and were objects of veneration. In Anuradhapura, the five most important stupas were: the
Thuparama (part of the Mahāvihāra complex), the
Mirisavati, the
Ruvanvalisaya (also known as the Mahastupa), the Abhayagiri and the Jetavana (the largest stupa in the capital, and probably the largest in the Buddhist world at the time of construction).
Bodhisattva, from the Anuradhapura period (8th century) It is known that in the 8th century, both Mahāyāna and the esoteric
Vajrayāna form of Buddhism were being practised in Sri Lanka, and two Indian monks responsible for propagating Esoteric Buddhism in China,
Vajrabodhi and
Amoghavajra, visited the island during this time. Abhayagiri remained an influential centre for the study of Theravāda Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna thought from the reign of
Gajabahu I until the 12th century. It saw various important Buddhist scholars working in both Sanskrit and Pāli. These include (possibly) Upatissa (who wrote the
Vimuttimagga), Kavicakravarti Ananda (authored the
Saddhammopåyana),
Aryadeva, Aryasura, and the tantric masters Jayabhadra, and Candramåli.
Development of the Theravāda textual tradition Sri Lankan (Sinhala) Buddhists initially preserved the Buddhist scriptures (the
Tipitaka) orally, however, according to the
Mahavamsa, during the first century BCE, destruction brought by the
Beminitiyaseya led to the writing down of these scriptures to preserve them. The site of this event was at
Aluvihāra temple. According to
Richard Gombrich this is "the earliest record we have of Buddhist scriptures being committed to writing anywhere". The surviving Pāli texts all derive from the Mahāvihāra tradition. While the other traditions like Abhayagiri no doubt had their own prolific literature, nothing of their work has survived in Pali. Theravāda Buddhists also developed a series of scriptural commentaries (called the
Atthakatha). The Theravāda tradition holds that a tradition of Indian commentaries on the scriptures existed even during Mahinda's early days. There were also various commentaries on the Tipitaka written in the
Sinhala language, such as the
Maha-atthakatha ("Great commentary"), the main commentary tradition of the Mahavihara monks, which is now lost. Furthermore, there were also Sinhala texts that were written to translate and explain the Pali Buddhist teachings to those who did not have knowledge of Pali. The Sinhala language thus developed during the Anuradhapura period under the influence of Pali (as well as Sanskrit and Tamil). As a result of the work of later South Indian scholars who were associated with the Mahāvihāra, mainly
Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century CE),
Dhammapala and
Buddhadatta, Sri Lankan Buddhists adopted Pali as their main scholastic language. This adoption of a
lingua franca allowed the Sri Lankan tradition to become more international, allowing easier links with the community in South India and Southeast Asia. These Mahāvihāra Theravāda monks also produced new Pāli literature such as historical chronicles, hagiographies, practice manuals, summaries, textbooks, poetry, and
Abhidhamma texts. Buddhaghosa's work on Abhidhamma and Buddhist practice, such as his
Visuddhimagga, remains the most influential texts of the modern Theravāda tradition apart from the Pāli Canon.
Warfare, decline and restoration of the sangha ("Lion Rock"), a rock fortress and city, built by King
Kashyapa (477 – 495 CE) as a new more defensible capital. It was also used as a Buddhist monastery after the capital was moved back to Anuradhapura. From the 5th century (after the death of
Mahanama in 428 CE) to the eleventh century, the island of Sri Lanka saw the weakening of royal Anuradhapura authority, continuous warfare between Sinhala kings, pretenders and foreign invaders from South Indian dynasties (the
Cholas,
Pallavas and
Pandyas). These South Indian dynasties were strongly Hindu and often sought to eliminate Buddhist influence. In time, South Indian Buddhism was wiped out, and this severed a key cultural link between Sri Lanka and South India. This era of the conflict saw the sacking of Buddhist monasteries and often made the situation difficult for Buddhism. Parākramabāhu seems to have seen the Sangha as being divided, corrupt and in need of reform, especially the Abhayagiri. The
Culavamsa| states that Buddhist monastic communities were experiencing much conflict at this time. This chronicle also claims that many monks in the Sri Lankan Sangha had even begun to marry and have children, behaving more like lay followers than monastics. Parākramabāhu's chief monastic leader in these reforms was Mahathera Kassapa, an experienced monk well versed in the Suttas and Vinaya. According to some sources, some monks were defrocked and given the choice of either returning to the laity, or attempting re-ordination under the new unified Theravāda tradition as "novices" (
Śrāmaṇera|). He appointed a
Sangharaja, or "King of the Sangha", a monk who would preside over the Sangha and its ordinations in Sri Lanka, assisted by two deputies. According to Alastair Gornall, the period between the 10th to 13th centuries saw a massive explosion in the composition of Pali literature. Part of the impulse behind these literary efforts was the fear that the Indian invasions and various wars on the island could lead to the decline of Buddhism. To prevent this, Pali authors of the reform era attempted to write works which would protect the essence (
sara) of the Buddha's teaching. This literature includes the work of prominent scholars such as Anuruddha, Sumangala, Siddhattha,
Sāriputta Thera,
Mahākassapa of
Dimbulagala and Moggallana Thera.
Transitional period (1232–1592) Fragmentation and decline , one of the Sinhala rock fortresses of this era. King Bhuvenakabahu fled here in 1272 with the tooth relic to escape invaders. It was later abandoned and became a home to Buddhist monks. After the death of Parākramabāhu I, his realm disintegrated into warring factions, and South Indian invaders resumed their attacks on the island, eventually leading to the swift decline of the Polonnaruva kingdom. There was a brief period of rebuilding under
Nissanka Malla, who promoted the building of great Buddhist centres at
Nissanka Latha Mandapaya,
Rankoth Vihara and
Hatadage. However, the kingdom continued to decline, under the attacks by South Indian states. The last Sinhala king to rule from Polonnaruva was
Parākramabāhu III (1302–1310), who was actually a client king of the Pandyas and later had to retreat to
Dambadeniya. After this, Sinhala kings were forced to retreat further to the south (to cities like
Kurunagala and
Gampola), mainly in search of security from South Indian states and from the expansive Tamil
kingdom of Jaffna (a Hindu realm which now controlled the north-west of the island). This instability also led to the decline of the discipline of the Sangha. Sinhala kings tried various measures to stem this decline, such as purging the sangha of undisciplined monks and introducing the post of
sangharaja (chief of the sangha) under the Gampola kings. Regarding sectarian differences, these had mostly been worked out at this point in time, with the adoption of some Mahayana (as well as Hindu) deities and the rituals of the other sects into the Theravada orthodoxy. The cult of the tooth relic retained its importance for example. In spite of all the instability, Sri Lanka was seen by Buddhists in Southeast Asia as a new holy land, since it contained relics of the Buddha which were accessible, in contrast to India which had seen the
disappearance of Buddhism and the
Muslim invasions. This period of the Dambadeniya kings also saw a flowering of religious poetry, such as the
Kavsilumina, written by the king
Parākramabāhu II in
mahakavya style and the
Saddharma Ratnavaliya (which retells stories of the Dhammapada commentary).
The influence of Mahāyāna . Sri Lanka, c. 750. Veneration of
Avalokiteśvara (Lokeshwara Natha) has continued to the present day in Sri Lanka, where he is called Nātha. In more recent times, some western-educated Theravādins have attempted to identify Nātha with
Maitreya. However, traditions and basic iconography, including an image of
Amitābha on his crown, identify Nātha as Avalokiteśvara. Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as
bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as
Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was styled a "
mahāsatta" ("great being", Sanskrit
mahāsattva), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana. Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattvas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the
ten pāramitās. In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives.
Kandyan period (1592–1815) European intervention and decline During the beginning of the 16th century, Sri Lanka was fragmented into several kingdoms. The
Portuguese Empire exploited this and established
Colombo as a way to control the
cinnamon trade. The Portuguese became drawn into various wars with these kingdoms. Between 1597 and 1658, a substantial part of the island came under
Portuguese rule, though their control was rather tenuous and prone to rebellion. Only the
kingdom of Kandy retained its independence. The Portuguese sought to introduce
Catholicism to the island, and in their wars, with the Sinhalese, they often destroyed Buddhist monasteries or handed them over to Catholic orders. From the 16th century onward,
Christian missionaries attempted to convert the local population to Christianity. Non-Christian religions were suppressed and persecuted, while Christians were given preferential treatment. Over time, a
Christian minority developed on the island. This war-torn period weakened the Buddhist Sangha so much, that in 1592,
Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy sought aid from Burma to ordain Buddhist monks, as there was hardly a single properly ordained monk left. It was also during this period that Kirti Sri Rajasinha issued a decree stating that only those of the
govigama caste could join the Siam Nikaya, and those non-govigama bhikkhus which did exist were exiled or prevented from participating in higher ordination. The reigns of Kirti Sri Rajasinha (1747–1782) and
Rajadhi Rajasinha (1782–1798) also saw the restoration of many Buddhist temples that had been destroyed in previous wars as the building of new temples (particularly in and around Kandy, such as
Malvatta,
Gangarama and
Degaldoruva).
British Ceylon period (1815–1948) In 1795–1796, the Dutch territories in Sri Lanka came under the control of the
British East India Company. In 1815 a British army conquered a politically divided Kandy and deposed the Sinhalese king. The British retained Sri Lanka until 1948 (though it remained a
dominion until 1972). The initial treaty of surrender, the Kandyan Convention, stated that the Buddhist religion would be protected and maintained. The first half of the 19th century saw the formation of a new monastic fraternity, the
Amarapura Nikaya, by monks and would-be monks of non-govigama castes. They travelled to Burma in the first decade of the 19th century to bring back a new ordination which would not be restricted by caste. This new monastic order thrived in the littoral regions outside of Kandy and even made headways into Kandyan territory. While the British government had a preference for Christians, they were not openly hostile to Buddhism, due to their fear that religious controversies might provoke political unrest. During the first two decades of British rule, there was no official British support for Christian missionary societies. Left to their own resources, the efforts of these missionary organizations made their progress in converting the population slowly, though they did grow. Their activities were also very restricted in the Kandyan regions. From the beginning, the missions used education as a means of evangelisation. Education in these schools (which disparaged Buddhism) was a requirement for government office. Christian missionaries also wrote tracts in Sinhalese attacking Buddhism and promoting Christianity. The society also sought to create a universal network of Buddhists around the world and unite the Buddhist world. Dharmapala also represented Theravada Buddhism as a
world religion at the
World's Parliament of Religions of 1893. A key element of the Buddhist revival was a strong nationalist anti-colonial stance mixed with a sense of Buddhist
internationalism. In spite of its strong anti-Christian missionary stance, the Buddhist revival has been described as a "Protestant Buddhism" (but more commonly "
Buddhist modernism") due to how similar the tactics, ideas and organizational forms were to modern Protestant Christianity. Another key element of the revival was a temperance movement (that also included Sri Lankan Christians), which established numerous temperance societies, similar to the
Christian temperance societies. Many of the figures associated with the revival and with the temperance movement were also closely associated with the nationalist independence movement in the early 20th century. The most famous of which is Anagarika Dharmapala, but also includes the Senanayake brothers, mainly
F. R. Senanayake, D. C. Senanayake and
D. S. Senanayake as well as
D. B. Jayatilaka.
Modern Buddhist literature and spread to the West The associations of the Buddhist revival also contributed much to the publication of Buddhist literature, and the promotion of Buddhist scholarship. Revivalist Buddhist scholars include Sir D. B. Jayatilaka, F. R. Senanayake,
Walisinghe Harischandra and
W. A. de Silva. Some bhikkhuni ordinations were carried out with the assistance of nuns from the East Asian tradition; others were carried out by the Theravada monk's Order alone. Since 2005, many ordination ceremonies for women have been organized by the head of the Dambulla chapter of the Siyam Nikaya in Sri Lanka.However, since the higher bhikkhu leaders in Sri Lanka and other Theravada Buddhist countries have concluded that it is contrary to Buddhist discipline. Therefore, Sri Lanka and other Theravada Buddhist countries do not accept that Bhikkhuni Ordination.Although women are not eligible for ordination, they are able to live their monastic life in other ways, such as the Ten Precepts Angarika nuns. == Buddhist organizations ==