College fraternities and sororities

Establishment and early history The term fraternity is derived from the Latin word , which means "brother". Similarly the term "sorority", is derived from the Latin word , meaning "sister". Social fraternities , In 1825, Kappa Alpha Society, the first fraternity to retain its social characteristic, was established at Union College in Schenectady, New York. In 1827, Sigma Phi and Delta Phi were also founded at the same institution, creating the Union Triad. The further birthing of Psi Upsilon (1833), Omicron Kappa Epsilon (1834), Chi Psi (1841), and Theta Delta Chi (1847) collectively established Union College as the Mother of Fraternities. The social fraternity Chi Phi, officially formed in 1854, traces its roots to a short-lived organization founded at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey in 1824 bearing the same name. In the 19th century, college fraternities represented the intersection between dining clubs, literary societies, and secret initiatory orders such as Freemasonry. Their early growth was widely opposed by university administrators, though the increasing influence of fraternity alumni, as well as several high-profile court cases, succeeded in largely muting opposition by the 1880s. Social sororities , 1901 Sororities, originally called women's fraternities, began to develop in 1851 with the formation of the Adelphean Society Alpha Delta Pi. However, fraternity-like organizations for women didn't take their current form until the establishment of Pi Beta Phi in 1867 and Kappa Alpha Theta and Kappa Kappa Gamma in 1870. The term sorority was used by a professor of Latin at Syracuse University, Frank Smalley, who felt the word "fraternity" was inappropriate for a group of ladies. The word comes from Latin '''', meaning "sister," "cousin, daughter of a father's brother," or "female friend." but at the same time had to deal with the same challenges as fraternities with college administrations. Today, both social and multicultural sororities are present on more than 650 college campuses across the United States and Canada. The National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) serves as the umbrella organization for 26 international sororities. Founded in 1902, NPC is one of the oldest and largest women's membership organizations, representing more than four million women at 655 college and university campuses and 4,500 local alumni chapters in the U.S. and Canada. Internationalization in Montreal, 1939 celebrates its 85th anniversary at the University of the Philippines In 1867, the Chi Phi fraternity established its Theta chapter at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, marking the first foray of the American social fraternity outside the borders of the United States. At the time, many students from the American South were moving to Europe to study because of the disrepair southern universities fell into during the American Civil War. One such group of Americans organized Chi Phi at Edinburgh; however, during the Theta chapter's existence, it initiated no non-American members. With declining American enrollment at European universities, Chi Phi at Edinburgh closed in 1870. The first sorority outside the United States, Kappa Alpha Theta, was established in Toronto in 1887. By 1927, there were 42 fraternity and sorority chapters at the University of Toronto and 23 at McGill University. A few chapters were also reported at the University of British Columbia, Carleton University, Dalhousie University, University of Manitoba, Queen's University, University of Western Ontario, Wilfrid Laurier University, University of Waterloo and Brock University. This was followed by the Rizal Center Sorority. The first Greek-letter organization and fraternity in Asia, the Upsilon Sigma Phi, was founded in 1918. The first Greek-letter sorority, UP Sigma Beta Sorority, was recognized in 1932. Some, such as Alpha Chi Rho (1895) and Alpha Kappa Lambda (1907), only admitted Christians, Multiculturalism fraternity members assist the Georgia Air National Guard during a George Floyd protest in Atlanta in June 2020 Numerous Greek organizations in the past have enacted formal and informal prohibitions on pledging individuals of different races and cultural backgrounds. This began with historically White fraternities and sororities excluding African Americans due to racism. Historically Black fraternities and sororities were spearheaded thereafter in response. Racist policies have since been abolished by the North American Interfraternity Conference, and students of various ethnicities have come together to form a council of multicultural Greek organizations. The National Multicultural Greek Council, officially formed in 1998, is a coordinating body of 19 Greek organizations, including nine fraternities and ten sororities with cultural affiliations. The first multicultural sorority, Mu Sigma Upsilon, was established in November 1981 at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. The formation of this Greek organization allowed for the emergence of a multicultural fraternity and sorority movement, giving birth to a multicultural movement. Professional fraternities and sororities The main purpose of professional fraternities and sororities is to promote the interests of a particular profession and whose membership is generally restricted to students and alumni in particular academic disciplines or industries. Service fraternities and sororities The term service fraternities and sororities, is used to describe Greek life organizations whose primary purpose is facilitate and accomplish acts of community service; this is in contrast to certain social fraternities and sororities or religious fraternities and sororities that participate in philanthropy and community service as a non-primary (secondary or tertiary) mission. ==Structure and organization==

Gender exclusivity Fraternities and sororities traditionally have been single-sex organizations, with fraternities consisting exclusively of men and sororities consisting exclusively of women. In the United States, fraternities and sororities have a statutory exemption from Title IX legislation prohibiting this type of gender exclusion within student groups, and organizations such as the Fraternity and Sorority Political Action Committee lobby to maintain it. Since the mid-20th century, a small number of fraternities, such as Alpha Theta and Lambda Lambda Lambda, have opted to become co-educational and admit female members; however, these generally represent a minority of Greek-letter organizations and no such fraternity is currently a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, the largest international association of fraternities. Much more commonly, coed fraternities exist in the form of service fraternities, such as Alpha Phi Omega and Epsilon Sigma Alpha and others. These organizations are similar to social fraternities and sororities, except they are coed and non-residential. Similarly, in the United States, professional fraternities, such as Alpha Kappa Psi, Delta Sigma Pi, and Phi Gamma Nu, are required to be co-ed under the Title IX amendments, as are any fraternities that are not social. In 2014, Sigma Phi Epsilon became the first fraternity in the North American Interfraternity Conference to accept transgender members, or those identifying as male, to join the social fraternity. Several sororities have adjusted their policies to confirm that transgender prospective members are allowed. Importantly, all these variants have stemmed from a process of self-determination, without challenge by other fraternities and sororities. In a bellwether case in 2016, Harvard University changed its student conduct code to bar members of single-sex groups from leading campus groups, serving as captains of sports teams, or participating in valuable academic fellowships. This is being contested vigorously in U.S. federal court by several affected fraternities and sororities. Governance Individual chapters of fraternities and sororities are largely self-governed by their active (student) members; however, alumni members may retain legal ownership of the fraternity or sorority's property through an alumni chapter or alumni corporation. All of a single fraternity or sorority's chapters are generally grouped in a national or international organization that sets standards, regulates insignia and ritual, publishes a journal or magazine for all of the chapters of the organization, and has the power to grant and revoke charters to chapters. These federal structures are largely governed by alumni members of the fraternity, though with some input from the active (student) members. Leadership The leadership structure of a typical college fraternity chapter is designed as a hierarchical "Executive Board" that mirrors corporate or civic governance to ensure the chapter's operational stability. At the top is the President, who serves as the primary liaison between the chapter, the university administration, and the national headquarters. Supporting the President are several key officers: the Vice President, who often oversees internal committee operations; the Treasurer, responsible for managing the chapter's budget and dues collection; and the Secretary, who handles records and communications. Specialized roles such as the Recruitment Chair (responsible for growth), the Risk Manager (ensuring safety and policy compliance), the Serjeant-at-arms (counting votes and ensuring attendance), and the Scholarship Chair (monitoring academic performance) are also standard. A new member period may last anywhere from one weekend to several months. During this time, new members might participate in almost all aspects of the life of the fraternity or sorority, but most likely not be permitted to hold office in the organization. After the new member period, a second vote of members may sometimes be taken, often, but not always, using a blackball system. New members who pass this second vote are invited to a formal and secret ritual of initiation into the organization, advancing them to full membership. Membership in more than one fraternity or sorority is acceptable, but only under specific Greek councils. Recently, some Greek-letter organizations have replaced the term "pledge" with that of "associate member" or "new member". Sigma Alpha Epsilon, in 2014, abolished pledging altogether. Potential members are now immediately initiated into the fraternity upon accepting a bid. Residency chapter house at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Unique among most campus organizations, members of social fraternities and sororities usually congregate and sometimes live together in large houses, generally privately owned by the organization or by the organization's alumni association. Often, fraternities and sorority houses, called lodges or chapter houses, are located on the same street or in close quarters within the same neighborhood, which may be colloquially known as "Greek row", "frat row", or "sorority row". Often, chapter houses are uniquely designed, highly elaborate, and very expensive to operate and maintain. Chapter houses became more common in the late 19th century, when organizations began to grow in size, and wealthy alumni were able to help purchase or build houses. Alpha Tau Omega became the first fraternity to own a residential house in the South when, in 1880, its chapter at the University of the South acquired one. Chapters of many fraternities followed suit, purchasing and, less often, building them with the support of alumni. Phi Sigma Kappa's chapter home at Cornell, completed in 1902, is the oldest such house still occupied by its fraternal builders. Usually, the more expensive the house, the higher the annual organization dues. The features and size of chapter houses play a major role in chapters remaining competitive in recruiting and retaining members on many campuses. Julian Hawthorne, the son of Nathaniel Hawthorne, wrote in his posthumously published Memoirs of his initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon: I was initiated into a college secret society—a couple of hours of grotesque and good-humored rodomontade and horseplay, in which I cooperated as in a kind of pleasant nightmare, confident, even when branded with a red-hot iron or doused head-over-heels in boiling oil, that it would come out all right. The neophyte is effectively blindfolded during the proceedings, and at last, still sightless, I was led down flights of steps into a silent crypt and helped into a coffin, where I was to stay until the Resurrection...Thus it was that just as my father passed from this earth, I was lying in a coffin during my initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon. Meetings and rituals are sometimes conducted in what is known as a chapter room located inside the fraternity's house. Entry into chapter rooms is often prohibited to all but the initiated. In one extreme case, the response of firefighters to a blaze signaled by an automated alarm at the Sigma Phi chapter house at the University of Wisconsin in 2003 was hampered in part because fraternity members refused to disclose to emergency responders the location of the hidden chapter room, where the conflagration had erupted. Symbols and naming conventions (left), Delta Sigma Pi (center), and Phi Kappa Phi (right) Dating back to their origins in the 19th century, fraternities and sororities adopted symbolism from the ancient Greeks and Romans, chivalric traditions, and Jewish and Christian scripture learned in their classes, along with some influences of Freemasonry. The fraternity or sorority badge is an enduring symbol of membership in a Greek letter organization, and often incorporates the organization's Greek letters and various symbols. == Membership profile ==

Demographics As of 2011, there were approximately nine million student and alumni members of fraternities and sororities in North America, or about three percent of the total population. Roughly 750,000 undergraduate students belong to 12,000 fraternity and sorority chapters on 800 campuses in Canada and the United States. Senior surveys from the classes of 2009 and 2010 showed that 77 percent of sorority members and 73 percent of fraternity members were White. In 2013, about 25 percent of members of the U.S. House of Representatives and 40 percent of members of the U.S. Senate were members of fraternities or sororities. Academic performance Studies have found that university graduation rates are 20 percent higher among members of Greek-letter organizations than among non-members, and students who are members of fraternities and sororities typically have higher-than-average grade point averages. One reason for this may be that many chapters and colleges require members to maintain a certain academic standard. Each organization requires its members to maintain a minimum GPA to continue their membership. Fraternity and sorority members who maintain high GPAs may be invited to join notable Greek honor societies, such as Gamma Sigma Alpha and Order of Omega. Gamma Sigma Alpha acknowledges fraternity and sorority members who hold a 3.5 GPA in upper-division classes. Order of Omega recognizes the top three percent of fraternity and sorority members who exemplify leadership qualities. Not only that, but researchers at Union College studied the effects of fraternity and sorority membership on the incomes of those who participated when attending university versus those who did not, finding that those that had participated had incomes higher than their non-Greek peers by as much as 36%. Personal fulfillment Fraternities and sororities engage in philanthropic activities and host social events. A 2014 Gallup survey of 30,000 university alumni found that persons who said they had been members of Greek-letter organizations while undergraduates reported having a greater sense of purpose, as well as better social and physical well-being, than those who had not. == Criticism ==

Fraternities and sororities have been criticized for practicing elitism and favoritism, discriminating against non-White students and other marginalized groups, conducting dangerous hazing rituals, and facilitating alcohol abuse and campus sexual assault including rape culture. Many colleges and universities have sought to reform or eliminate them due to these concerns, but these efforts have typically been met with intense controversy. Homogeneous membership and elitism Fraternities and sororities have often been characterized as elitist or exclusionary associations, organized for the benefit of a largely White, upper-class membership base. Members of fraternities and sororities disproportionately come from certain socio-economic demographics. Some colleges and universities have banned Greek letter organizations. The oldest ban was at Princeton University, though Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s. Oberlin College banned "secret societies" (fraternities and sororities) in 1847, and the prohibition continues to the present. Quaker universities, such as Guilford College and Earlham College, often ban fraternities and sororities because they are seen as a violation of the Quaker principle of equality. Brandeis University has never permitted fraternities or sororities as it maintains a policy that all student organizations have membership open to all. Hamilton College did not prohibit fraternities, but to improve campus social conditions, in 1995 mandated that all students would be required to live and eat on campus; the college also bought the fraternity houses. Alcohol use One Harvard University study found that "4 out of 5 fraternity and sorority members are binge drinkers. In comparison, other research suggests 2 out of 5 college students overall are regular binge drinkers." There is also a higher rate of alcohol-related deaths and injuries among fraternities, which has resulted in many lawsuits and suspensions. Drug use Studies have shown that fraternity and sorority members are more likely than the average college student to use or abuse drugs. Since the 1990s, fraternity members have experienced an increase of over 400 percent in the recreational use of prescription benzodiazepines like Xanax and Valium. Amphetamine use, including drugs like Ritalin and Adderall, is more common among fraternity members than other college students. Fraternity members also abuse amphetamines at double the rate of their non-college peers. Marijuana use is also more prevalent among fraternity and sorority members compared to college men and women not in fraternities or sororities. Hazing from the early 20th century Fraternities, and to a lesser extent, sororities, have been criticized for hazing, sometimes committed by active undergraduate members against their chapter's pledges. Common hazing practices include sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, paddling, use of stress positions, forced runs, busy work, forced smoking, forced drinking, forced drug use, forced consumption of spoiled food, public humiliation, and mind games. Rarer incidents have involved branding, enemas, urination and feces on pledges, puking, and public masturbation. Historically, hazing of pledges culminated in an event known as "Hell Week," in which a week-long series of physical and mental torments are inflicted on pledges. In its worst form, hazing has led to the injury or death of fraternity and sorority pledges or members. In addition, there are anti-hazing laws in most states, criminalizing hazing in the United States. At some colleges, Hell Week has evolved into Help Week, a time for community service. Nepotism and networking Critics of Greek-letter organizations assert that they create a culture of nepotism in later life, while supporters have applauded them for creating networking opportunities for members after graduation. A 2013 report by Bloomberg found that fraternity connections are influential in obtaining lucrative employment positions at top Wall Street brokerages. According to the report, recent graduates have been known to exchange the secret handshakes of their fraternities with executives whom they know are also members to obtain access to competitive appointments. Fraternity pledges are at a higher likelihood to commit rape or sexual assault because of the pressure to meet the hyper-masculine standards that fraternities expect of their members. Overall, fraternity men are shown to have more rape-supportive attitudes than non-fraternity men. Fraternities have often been accused of fostering rape-supportive attitudes by promoting male dominance and brotherhood, and fraternity affiliation is a significant predictor of sexually predatory behavior in retrospective research. Attitudes towards women learned in fraternity life can perpetuate fraternity men's lifelong attitudes, leading to the potential to commit sexual assault and rape after college life. Studies show that women in sororities are almost twice as likely to experience rape than other college women. A 2017 research article studied campus demographics and reported rapes, and found that campuses that report more rapes have more fraternity men, athletes and liquor violations. Researchers have found that in predominantly male environments, such as fraternities, athletics, and military groups, men feel pressure to meet the group's standard of masculinity, which may contribute to men being more accepting of sexual violence. Nicholas Syrett, a professor of history at the University of Northern Colorado, has been a vocal critic of the evolution of fraternities in the 20th century. In 2011, Syrett stated that "fraternal masculinity has, for at least 80 years, valorized athletics, alcohol abuse, and sex with women." Time magazine columnist Jessica Bennett has denounced fraternities as breeding "sexism and misogyny that lasts long after college". In her column, Bennett recounts that, while she was an undergraduate student at the University of Southern California, doormen at fraternity parties "often ranked women on a scale of 1 to 10, with only 'sixes' and up granted entry to a party". Fraternity and sorority members face a higher risk of STDs compared to their non-Greek college peers, largely due to their higher rates of socializing, substance abuse (impaired judgement), sexual violence, and more casual sex partners. To protect their fraternity's brotherhood, fraternity men and athletes may not confront or report sexual assault when it happens. Test and homework banks It is common for members of Greek-letter organizations to have higher-than-average GPAs; some claim that this is partly due to test and homework banks filled over the years by members of their organization. There is much backlash condemning the test and homework banks as academic dishonesty. Alleged racism and minority discrimination Researchers, such as Matthew W. Hughey, claim to have linked racism in Greek life to people experiencing microaggressions, fewer opportunities to use the networking system built into Greek life, and the use of stereotypes. In response to allegedly experiencing racism and exclusion from solely or predominantly White sororities, Black and multicultural organizations were founded. ==Fraternity and sorority vocabulary==

members perform a step routine during the 2015 Black History Month Parade in El Paso, Texas. • Active – an initiated, undergraduate student member of a fraternity or sorority • Alumni, Alumna, or Alumnus – a member of a sorority or fraternity who has graduated or is no longer an undergraduate student. Some fraternities and sororities outside of these conferences also ban auxiliaries, including Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia and Sigma Alpha Iota. Part of the rationale behind banning auxiliary groups is that such groups could jeopardize the host organizations' Title IX exemptions, citing the United States Supreme Court's ruling in Roberts v. United States Jaycees. In the 19th and early 20th century, badges were also worn as a watch fob. See also pledge pin. • Bid – a formal offer to become a pledge (see below) of a fraternity or sorority. • Call – a vocal expression used by members of a fraternity or sorority • Chapter – a local branch or unit of a fraternity or sorority • Charter – an official document establishing the creation of a chapter of a fraternity or sorority • Frat Boy – a member of a fraternity characterized by a way of dressing and a homogeneous behavior as other members of that fraternity. • Geed or GDI (for "God Damn Independent") – someone who isn't a member of a fraternity or sorority. • Greek – a fraternity or sorority member • Line – term used by National Pan-Hellenic Council for members who join in the same semester; similar to class • Local – a fraternity or sorority with only one chapter. • National – a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, both of which are in different states within the same nation • Pledge – a person who has accepted a bid from a fraternity or sorority but has not yet been initiated, sometimes also called associate member • Pledge Class – pledges who were recruited in the same semester or cycle • Pledge pin – a pin worn by pledges for the duration of the pledging period. It is usually given to a pledge following a ceremony when they are first offered membership in the organization and can be worn until their initiation. With some organizations, especially those that no longer have a pledge process, it may be called a new member pin. See also badge. • Potential new member – Abbreviated PNM, one who is in the process of seeking a bid. • Rush – the process of recruitment to a fraternity or sorority. • Rushee – one who is in the process of seeking a bid. • Sign – a unique hand signal used between members of a fraternity or sorority • Sister – term used by sorority members when referring to each other or an active member of a sorority • Soror – term used by sorority members when referring to each other, mostly within National Pan-Hellenic Council sororities • Step dance – form of traditional African American dance popularized by National Pan-Hellenic Council members as synchronized group routines. Now also performed by some multi-cultural Greek letter organizations. • Stepping – when members of a fraternity or sorority perform synchronized movements without music, such as clapping, chanting, jumping, or stomping their feet. Usually associated with National Pan-Hellenic Council members or multi-cultural Greek letter organizations. • Strolling – when members of a fraternity or sorority move together or dance in a line, without music. Usually associated with National Pan-Hellenic Council members. ==See also==