Saqifa In the immediate aftermath of Muhammad's death in 11/632, a gathering of the
Ansar (
Medinan Muslims) took place at the Saqifa () of the
Banu Sa'ida clan, while Muhammad's close relatives were preparing for his burial. The
conventional wisdom is that the Ansar met there to decide on a new leader for the
Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the
Muhajirun. The leading candidate was possibly
Sa'd ibn Ubada, a
companion of Muhammad and a chief of the
Banu Khazraj, the majority tribe of the Ansar. Their motive has been questioned by
Madelung and
Jafri, who contend that the Ansar only wanted to re-establish their control over their city, Medina. When they found out about the meeting via an informant, Abu Bakr and Umar rushed to the Saqifa, accompanied by
Abu Ubaida. These three companions were the only members of the Muhajirun in the Saqifa meeting, possibly accompanied by some relatives and servants. Once there, Abu Bakr warned the Ansar that
Arabs will not recognize the rule of anyone outside of Muhammad's tribe, the
Quraysh. The Muhajirun, Abu Bakr argued, were the best of Arabs in lineage and location, had accepted Islam earlier, and were closer to Muhammad in kinship. Abu Bakr then reportedly invited the Ansar to choose Umar or Abu Ubaida as Muhammad's successor. Since his two candidates lacked any realistic chance of success, this manoeuvre presented Abu Bakr as an acceptable alternative to Umar and Abu Ubaida for the Ansar. Someone countered Abu Bakr with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar should choose their separate rulers among themselves. A heated argument ensued until Umar asked Abu Bakr to stretch his hand and pledged allegiance to the latter, followed by others. In the process, Sa'd was beaten into submission by Umar, which indicates that a substantial number of the Ansar must have initially refused to follow Umar's lead. Otherwise, there would have been no need to beat up their chief Sa'd, according to Madelung. illustrating the vowing to Abu Bakr at Saqifah Muhammad had been buried by the time the Saqifa meeting ended, with the exclusion of Abu Bakr from the funeral rites. The authority of Abu Bakr was precarious at first, until Umar secured the pledges of allegiance from the Medinans with help from the
Banu Aslam and
Banu Aws tribes. In chronological order, Abu Bakr obtained the backing of
Uthman and of the
Banu Umayyad, of Sa'd and
Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, of the
Banu Zuhra, of
Zubayr, and finally of Ali. The Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad gathered at Ali's house in protest after learning about the appointment of Abu Bakr. Among them were Muhammad's uncle
Abbas and
Zubayr. These held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad, possibly referring to the announcement by the latter at the
Ghadir Khumm. Ordered by Abu Bakr, Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters would not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.'''''' The scene soon grew violent, but the mob retreated without Ali's pledge after his wife
Fatima pleaded with them. During this time period Madelung says that Ali could see nothing but hypocrisy in Abu Bakr's tears and his claims to love Muhammad's family. Abu Bakr soon placed a boycott on Ali and also on Muhammad's clan, the
Banu Hashim, to abandon their support for Ali. The boycott was successful, and those who initially supported Ali gradually turned away and pledged their allegiance to Abu Bakr. Most likely, Ali did not pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr until his wife Fatima died within six months of her father Muhammad. In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an
attack on her house to subdue Ali at the order of Abu Bakr. Sunnis categorically reject these allegations. After Fatima's death and in the absence of popular support, Ali is said to have relinquished his claims to the caliphate for the sake of the unity of a nascent Islam, In contrast with Muhammad's lifetime, Ali is believed to have retired from public life during the caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, which has been interpreted as a silent censure of the first three caliphs. Umar later criticized the Saqifa affair, "The oath of allegiance for Abu Bakr was a [i.e., a precipitate and ill-considered deal], but God averted the evil of it." This was a reference to the exclusion of the majority of the Muhajirun and particularly Muhammad's kin, whose participation was vital for a legitimate outcome at the Saqifa. Possibly because of its questionable legal authority, Umar also warned Muslims against ever following the example of Saqifa. Similar concerns about the legitimacy of the Saqifa are raised by contemporary authors. Some have further criticized the Saqifa affair as a "backroom deal" and a "coup" which was heavily influenced by the pre-Islamic tribal politics. The evil of the '''' which, Umar thought, had been averted by God would erupt later in the form of the
First Fitna, suggests Madelung.
Rashidun caliphs Abu Bakr adopted the title of
khalifat rasul Allah, commonly translated as the successor to the messenger of God. This was shortened to
khalifa, from which the word caliph arose. Abu Bakr's tenure as the caliph lasted just over two years. Though he was appointed caliph by those at Saqifah, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor, reportedly against the advice of the Quraysh elders. Umar was instrumental in the ascension of Abu Bakr to the caliphate. In 644, on his deathbed, Umar tasked a committee of six with choosing the next caliph among themselves. The committee included Ali,
Uthman ibn Affan, and his brother-in-law,
Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf. The tie breaker vote belonged to
Abd al-Rahman, Othman's brother-in-law, and it has been suggested that the makeup and configuration of this committee left a small possibility for the nomination of Ali. In the final showdown,
Abd al-Rahman offered the caliphate to Ali on two conditions: first, he should follow the way of the
Quran and the
Sunnah of Muhammad, and second, he should follow the example of Abu Bakr and Umar. Ali is said to have accepted the first condition but declined the second one, adding that he would rely only on his own judgment in the absence of any precedent from the Quran or the Sunnah. Abd al-Rahman then presented the same conditions to Uthman who readily accepted them. It has been suggested that
Abd al-Rahman was well aware of Ali's disagreements with the past two caliphs and that Ali, known for his sincerity, would have inevitably rejected the second condition. Uthman's reign was marked with widespread accusations of nepotism. Under Uthman's rule, his tribe, the
Banu Umayya, is said to have regained its pre-Islamic influence and power. Uthman installed his relatives, including his cousin,
Muawiya, to rule the Islamic territories. According to Glassé, Uthman was assassinated by rebels in 656, in a climate of growing dissension against the despotism of the
Banu Umayya. Shortly after the assassination of Uthman, the caliphate was offered to Ali, who declined the position at first.
Aslan attributes Ali's initial refusal to the polarizing impact of Uthman's murder on the community, while
Durant writes that, "[Ali] shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue." In the absence of any serious opposition and urged particularly by the
Ansar and the
Iraqi delegations, Ali eventually accepted the first pledges of allegiance in the
Prophet's Mosque in Medina. It appears that Ali personally did not force anyone for a pledge though the strong pro-Ali atmosphere of Medina might have exerted some pressure on his opponents. In particular,
Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas,
Abdullah ibn Umar and
Usama ibn Zayd refused to acknowledge the authority of Ali.
Talha and
Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad with ambitions for the high office, likely gave their pledges though they later broke their oaths, claiming that they had pledged their allegiance to Ali under public pressure. There is, however, less evidence for violence here than in
Abu Bakr's election, according to
Madelung. Ali inherited the internal problems of Uthman's reign. Immediately after his election, Ali quelled an armed insurrection led by
Aisha, a widow of Muhammad, and Talhah and Zubayr. Afterwards, Uthman's governor of Syria,
Muawiya, declared war on Ali and a long and indecisive civil war ensued. The first four caliphs are referred to by the
Sunni as the
Rashidun (rightly-guided) caliphs, though only Ali is recognized by the Twelver
Shia.
Later successions Abu Bakr's view that the caliphate should remain within the
Quraysh tribe persisted in later generations. According to
Cooperson, however, this definition of the caliphate had its costs. First, it facilitated the rise of the
Umayyads who, despite being of the Quraysh, were among the most powerful enemies of Muhammad before their late conversion to Islam. Their rise to power marginalized both the
Muhajirun and the
Ansar, and reduced the caliphate, as an institution, to no more than a worldly kingship. Second, according to Cooperson, was the exclusion of Ali, who, insofar as the kinship of the Quraysh with Muhammad was concerned, had an arguably better claim to the caliphate. Ali eventually became caliph, but not in time to stop the rise of the Umayyads. After the assassination of Ali in 661, his eldest son,
Hasan, was elected caliph in Kufa. Muawiya then marched on Kufa with his army, whereas Hasan's military response to Muawiya suffered defections in large numbers, largely facilitated by military commanders and tribal chiefs who had been swayed to Muawiya's side by promises and offers of money. Under attack from Muawiya and after a failed assassination attempt on his life, a wounded Hasan ceded the caliphate to Muawiya in 661. Notably, under their agreement, it is said that Muawiya appointed Hasan as his successor. However, Hasan died in 669 at the age of forty six, before Muawiya. It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Muawiya. Before his death in 680, Muawiya arranged for the succession of his son,
Yazid, who is often remembered as a debaucher who openly violated the Islamic norms. In particular, Muawiya summoned a council (
shura) of the Muslim elite in 676 and won their support through flattery, bribes, and threats. Notably, Muawiya was unsuccessful in securing the oath of allegiance from Hasan's younger brother,
Husayn, who, after Muawiya's death, publicly denounced Yazid's legitimacy. In 680, after surrounding them in
Karbala and cutting off their access to water for multiple days, Yazid's forces slaughtered Husayn, alongside his family and his small group of supporters. The women and children were taken prisoner and marched to
Kufa and then
Damascus, some of whom are said to have perished from mistreatment. The tragic death of Husayn and his supporters marked the
Second Fitna, which finalized the
schism between the Sunni and the Shia. The latter consider Husayn as their third Imam. The succession subsequently transformed under the Umayyads from an elective/appointed position to being effectively hereditary within the family. == In the Quran ==