Early period Borihan Thepthani claimed the city of
Sukhothai was founded in 494 CE, followed by its twin city of Chaliang (). In contrast, the
Legend of the Arhat (Tamnan Nithan Phra Arahant; ) says Sukhothai was founded in 679 CE by Indrajayadhirāja (), who was from the city of
Nakhon Luang (; ; potentially
Lavapura); however, he, in 687, was deposed by
Balidhiraja, the elder son of
Kalavarnadisharaja of Lavo. The succession of rulers following
Balidhiraja remains obscure in the extant historical record. and has been identified with
Pra Poat honne Sourittep pennaratui sonanne bopitra, whose reign is conventionally dated to 757–800 CE. This claim accords with Tatsuo Hoshino's interpretation of the
Cefu Yuangui and the
Book of Tang, which record that the territory of
Qiān—centered at
Si Thep—bordered north to
Duō Mó Cháng (), a polity that Hoshino identifies as being located in the
Yom and
Nan river basins within the mountainous region of present-day northern Thailand. whose reign is reported to have lasted from 867 to 913 CE. This chronological positioning makes it implausible that Suvarṇakōmakam could have conducted an incursion into Sukhothai during the 9th century. Taken together, these inconsistencies substantially undermine the credibility of the abandonment hypothesis. Following the fall of Menam polities as a consequence of Tambralinga and Angkorian incursions of the 10th century, Sukhothai is reported to have been taken over in 957 by the
Mon monarch
Abhayakāminī, who purportedly fled from
Haripuñjaya after its capital was captured by another Khom polity, Umoṅkaselā (), situated in what is now
Fang. a condition that appears to have persisted until the formal establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom in 1238. Prior to the rise of Sukhothai, various other Tai kingdoms existed in the neighboring northern highlands. These include
Ngoenyang of the
Northern Thai people (present-day
Chiang Saen) and
Chiang Hung of the
Tai Lue people (present-day
Jinghong,
China). According to semi-legendary Shan documents, the Mau Shan Prince,
Sam Lung-pha of
Mogaung, before he established the Tai kingdom of the
Ahom in
Assam in 1229, raided the
Menam valley and the Malay peninsula as far as Tawi (
Dawei) and Yansaleng (
Junk Ceylon?). This purported influx of armed Tai may have had something to do with establishing the Tai kingdom of Sukhothai. However, according to the local textual tradition, a dynastic affiliation between the
Mon monarchs of the
Menam Basin and the
Tai nobles of the northern valleys is recorded to have been established at an earlier period, specifically during the late 7th century. The following individuals are recognized as the rulers of Sukhothai preceding the formal foundation of the Sukhothai Kingdom, which earlier historians have conventionally assigned to the year 1238 CE. ;Notes
Kingdom establishment Early political landscape and Monic domination Following the fall of
Lavo to
Tambralinga in 927, and of
Rāmaññadesa (; potentially the eastern
Menam valley) to Angkor in 946, the upper
Menam valley—particularly the regions of
Sukhothai,
Si Satchanalai, and (also known as Phichai Chiang Mai )—was brought under the control of a
Monic dynasty from
Haripuñjaya led by
Abhayakamini from the 950s onward, as recorded in the
Northern Chronicle.
Expansion of early Siamese polities During the mid-12th century, the upper
Menam Valley was likely brought under the dominion of an emergent line of early Siamese monarchs, whose principal seat of authority was situated in the
Phraek Si Racha region. According to historical records, two princes from this lineage established their respective domains in the upper valley.
Suryaraja, the grandfather of
Si Intharathit, is recorded in the
Ayutthaya Testimonies to have established his seat at Vicitraprakāra (; modern
Kamphaeng Phet) around 1157. based on interpretations of the text preserved in the
Dong Mè Nang Mưo’ng Inscription (K. 766), dated 1167 CE; however, he appears to have lost control of all territories in the lower
Menam Valley to the monarch of
Chen Li Fu and
Angkorian
Mahidharapura dynasty by around the 1180s to 1190s, after which he retreated southward to his primary domain in
Tambralinga. and even attempted an incursion into
Tambralinga in 1180 or 1196, which at the time was ruled by
Sri Dharmasokaraja II. The lower Siamese line of
Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri later became the Lavo dynasty of the
Ayutthaya Kingdom, and the upper line of
Suryaraja became Phra Ruang dynasty of Sukhothai. Under this lineage, the polity was reorganized and became known as
Chen Li Fu. Some scholars suggest that this reconstituted principality appears to have remained under the suzerainty of Angkor during this period. Concurrently, in the northern region, the Siamese domain ruled by
Candraraja—son of
Suryaraja, who had previously transferred the royal seat from
Kamphaeng Phet to
Sukhothai following the departure of
Pra Poa Noome Thele Seri—is recorded as a tributary polity through its dynastic association with
Indaprasthanagara, although the
Ayutthaya Testimonies place it to the east of
Sankhaburi. situated either in modern
Lom Sak district or . This Tai Lueang polity subsequently expanded its sphere of influence into
Mueang Chaliang during the waning reign of
Rajadhiraj II in the early 13th century. After consolidating control over
Mueang Chaliang, the Tai Lueang monarchs, led by
Sri Naw Nam Thum and his son
Pha Mueang, extended their dominion southward toward
Sukhothai in 1219, overthrowing the
Mon ruler
E Daeng Phloeng. However, the remnants of the older Monic aristocracy, led by
Khom Sabat Khlon Lamphong, staged a successful revolt, reclaiming control of Sukhothai. In response, a coalition of Siamese forces led by a local chieftain, Bang Klang Hao—later known as
Si Intharathit—recaptured the city and re-established it as an autonomous Siamese polity in 1238. Si Intharathit was militarily aided by his brother-in-law,
Pha Mueang, a son of
Sri Naw Nam Thum. The aforementioned event marked a watershed moment in the history of the Siamese, as Sukhothai emerged as the principal center of their political authority, maintaining its preeminence until the close of the 14th century. Bang Klang Hao ruled Sukhothai under the regnal name
Si Inthrathit and established the
Phra Ruang dynasty. Under the rule of Si Inthrathit, the primordial kingdom expanded its influence to the bordering cities surrounding the capital. By the end of his reign in 1270, Sukhothai covered the entire upper valley of the
Chao Phraya River, then known simply as Mae Nam (, 'mother of waters'), the generic Thai name for all rivers. In the first era, Sukhothai strongly shared a connection with western
Mon neighbor,
Hanthawaddy kingdom, in present-day lower
Myanmar. From the 13th to 14th centuries, Sukhothai was strongly influenced by the Khmer culture as
Lavo the regional center. About some fifty kilometers north of Sukhodaya stood another sister town,
Sri Sajanalaya, that would later become
Si Satchanalai, an important center of Sukhothai politics alongside the capital. Under Lavo control, various monuments was built in the city, several of which still stand in the
Sukhothai Historical Park. They include the Ta Pha Daeng Shrine, Wat Phra Phai Luang, and Wat Si Sawai. It was then shifted to
Tai Yuan's
Lan Na style in the early 14th century and steadily influenced by the
Mon and
Sri Lanka through
Theravada Buddhism since the reign of
Ram Khamhaeng. In 1270, Si Inthrathit died and was succeeded by his son
Ban Mueang. At the end of Ban Mueang's reign, he was succeeded by his brother
Ram Khamhaeng the Great; both expanded Sukhothai beyond the borders established by their father. To the south, Ram Khamhaeng subjugated the
mandala kingdoms of
Suvarnabhumi (likely present-day
Suphan Buri) and
Tambralinga (present-day
Nakhon Si Thammarat). Through the acquisition of Tambralinga, Ram Khamhaeng is said to have adopted
Theravada Buddhism as the state religion of Sukhothai; the accuracy of these claims by traditional historians is disputed. With regard to religion and culture, Ram Khamhaeng requested monks from Sri Thamnakorn to propagate
Theravada Buddhism in Sukhothai. In 1283, the
Sukhothai script was likely invented by Ram Khamhaeng; the earliest evidence of this ancient Thai writing is seen in the
Ram Khamhaeng Inscription, discovered by
Mongkut (Rama IV) nearly six centuries later. The script later evolved into the
modern Thai script of today. It was also during this time that the first relations with
Yuan China were established and Sukhothai began sending trade missions to China. The well-known
exported good of Sukhothai was the
sangkhalok ware. This was the only period in Thai history that Siam produced Chinese-style ceramics, and they fell out of use by the 14th century.
Decline and tributary status By the beginning of the fourteenth century, Sukhothai controlled the Chao Phraya plain, with spurs West to the
Hanthawaddy kingdom and South to the
Nakhon Si Thammarat Kingdom. After the death of Ram Khamhaeng, he was succeeded by his son
Loe Thai. Tributary states of Sukhothai began to break away rapidly after the death of Ram Khamhaeng. Sukhothai's dominions north of
Uttaradit, including the
Lao kingdoms of Muang Sua and
Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (present-day
Vientiane) liberated themselves from their Sukhothai overlords. In 1319, Martaban in the west broke away. After 1321,
Lan Na (the successor state to
Ngoenyang) gained influence over
Tak, one of the oldest towns in Sukhothai. To the south,
Suphannaphum Kingdom and
Nakhon Si Thammarat also broke free early in the reign of Loe Thai, cutting off access to Sukhothai's vassals further south. Thus, the kingdom was quickly reduced to its former status as a relatively small, local kingdom. In 1323, Loe Thai was succeeded by his cousin,
Ngua Nam Thum. In 1347, he was succeeded by
Li Thai (Maha Thammaracha I), the son of Loe Thai. In 1349, armies from
Ayutthaya invaded the kingdom and forced Sukhothai to become its tributary. He was succeeded by
Sai Lue Thai (Maha Thammaracha III) in 1399. In 1424, after the death of Sai Lue Thai, his sons Phaya Ram and Phaya Ban Mueang fought for the throne.
Intharacha of Ayutthaya intervened and installed Ban Mueang as
Borommapan (Maha Thammaracha IV). When Borommapan died in 1438,
Borommarachathirat II of Ayutthaya installed his son Ramesuan (the future
Borommatrailokkanat of Ayutthaya) as
Upparat in Sukhothai, a position similar to both that of a
viceroy and an
heir presumptive, establishing a form of
personal union and creating the Siamese
Front Palace system. Prince Ramesuan was presumably accompanied by Ayutthayan administrative staff and a military garrison, thus affirming the end of Sukhothai as an independent kingdom.
Annexation and further influence Under tributary status, the former territories of Sukhothai, known to the people of Ayutthaya as the
Northern Cities (, ), continued to be ruled by local aristocrats under Ayutthaya's overlordship per the
mandala systems of both dominions. The mandalas would politically and culturally merge during the 15th and 16th centuries, and Sukhothai's warfare, administration, architecture, religious practice, and language influenced those of Ayutthaya. Sukhothai nobles linked themselves with the Ayutthayan elite through marriage alliances, and often played the role of kingmaker in Ayutthayan succession conflicts. Sukhothai military leaders served prominently in Ayutthaya's army as the military tradition of Sukhothai was considered to be tougher. From 1456 to 1474, former Sukhothai territory became a battleground during the
Ayutthaya-Lan Na War (1441–1474). In 1462, Sukhothai briefly rebelled against Ayutthaya and allied itself with their enemy,
Lan Na. In 1463, Borommatrailokkanat temporarily moved the monarch's residence to Song Khwae, presumably to be closer to the frontline, and the city was permanently renamed to Phitsanulok. Contemporary
Portuguese traders described Ayutthaya and Phitsanulok as "twin states". Since then, the ruins of the capital city of the former Sukhothai Kingdom have been preserved as the
Sukhothai Historical Park and designated a
World Heritage Site. ==Legacy==