Madagascar

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara (Malagasy pronunciation: madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥) and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The origin of the name is uncertain, and is likely foreign, having been propagated in the Middle Ages by Europeans. If this is the case, it is unknown when the name was adopted by the inhabitants of the island. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to it, although some communities had their name for part or all of the lands they inhabited. One hypothesis relates Madagascar to the word Malay, referring to the Austronesian origin of the Malagasy people in modern-day Indonesia. In a map by Muhammad al-Idrisi dating from the year 1154, the island is named Gesira Malai, or "Malay island" in Arabic. The inversion of this name to Malai Gesira, as it was known by the Greeks, is thought to be the precursor of the island's modern name. The name "Malay island" was later rendered in Latin as Malichu, an abbreviated form of Malai Insula, in the medieval Hereford Mappa Mundi as the name of Madagascar. One of the first documents written that might explain why Marco Polo called it Madagascar is in a 1609 book on Madagascar by Jerome Megizer. Megizer describes an event in which the kings of the sultanates of Mogadishu and Adal traveled to Madagascar with a fleet of around 25,000 men in order to invade the wealthy islands of Taprobane and Sumatra. However, a tempest threw them off course and they landed on the coasts of Madagascar, conquering the island and signing a treaty with its inhabitants. They remained for eight months and erected eight pillars at different points of the island on which they engraved Magadoxo, a name which later, by corruption, became Madagascar. Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveler who copied Portuguese works and maps, confirmed this event by saying, "Madagascar has its name from 'makdishu' (Mogadishu)" whose "shayk" invaded it. The name Malagasikara, or Malagascar, is also historically attested. An English state paper in 1699 records the arrival of 80 to 90 passengers from "Malagaskar" to what eventually became New York City. An 1882 edition of the British newspaper The Graphic referred to "Malagascar" as the name of the island, stating that the word was etymologically of Malay origin and might be related to the name of Malacca. In 1891, Saleh bin Osman, a Zanzibari traveler, referred to the island as "Malagaskar" when recounting his journeys, including part of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. In 1905, Charles Basset wrote in his doctoral thesis that Malagasikara was the way the island was referred to by its natives, who emphasized that they were Malagasy, and not Madagasy. ==History==

Early period ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian, Oceanian, and Bantu (Southeast African) roots. Traditionally, archeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in successive waves in outrigger canoes from South Borneo, possibly throughout the period between 350 BCE and 550 CE, whereas others are cautious about dates earlier than 250 CE. In either case, these dates make Madagascar one of the most recent major landmasses on Earth to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand. It has been proposed that Ma'anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Javan and Sumatran-Malays in their trading fleets to Madagascar. Dates of settlement of the island earlier than the mid-first millennium CE are not strongly supported; however, there is scattered evidence for much earlier human visits and presence. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's abundance of megafauna, including 17 species of giant lemurs; the large flightless elephant birds (including possibly the largest bird to ever exist, Aepyornis maximus); the giant fossa; and several species of Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct because of hunting and habitat destruction. According to the General History of Africa, these first settlers, the (masters of the soil/land), are thought to have been the Kimosy in south-central Madagascar, the Antevinany in the southeast, the Antankoala and Kajemby in the northwest, and the Rasikajy in the northeast. Newer arrivals formed marriage alliances with the '''', facilitating their gradual assimilation. By 600 CE, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the Central Highlands. According to the General History of Africa, by the 8th century the Vazimba (a "way of life" rather than ethnic group) had absorbed or violently displaced the first settlers, and had come to refer to themselves as ''''. Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries, and introduced Islam and the Arabic script (adapted as for the Malagasy language). Indian Ocean trade along Madagascar's Northwestern Coast came to be controlled by the Antalaotra, Muslim Swahili-speakers who had migrated to the region around the 10th century and intermarried with the locals, forming city-states such as and . Around this time, zebu cattle from South India were first brought, intermingling with sanga cattle found in East Africa. By 1100, all regions of Madagascar were inhabited, although the total population remained small. On the northern coast, Mahilaka was abandoned and replaced by Vohemar in the 15th century as one of the island's main trading ports, Over the following centuries, the slave trade grew in importance as slaves were traded for firearms. In the late 17th century, Madagascar had an influx of pirates who had been expelled from the Caribbean, some of whom participated in local wars and , although they were routed by the British navy in the 1720s. The origin of the Maroserana, the dynasty of the Sakalava Empire, is uncertain, with Sakalava traditions holding that they originated from overseas and migrated to southwest Madagascar. Mahafaly tradition has Olembetsitoto as the first Maroserana sacred ruler in the 16th century, who was protected by an (priest). In the Central Highlands, Merina traditions hold that they encountered the Vazimba when gradually settling the highlands from the southeast, thought to have been completed by the 15th century. Of his successors, Ralambo founded the Merina Kingdom, and Andrianjaka completed the expulsion and assimilation of the Vazimba by the early 17th century. In the 18th century, the French established various trading posts along the east coast in order to supply the Mascarenes. The 18th century had seen rivalry between the French and the British over the wider Indian Ocean trade, of which Malagasy trade had proved decisive during the Carnatic Wars. and concluded a treaty in 1817 with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance, and recognition as the "King of Madagascar". Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818. They established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, and translated the Bible. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of various crimes, including theft, Christianity, and especially witchcraft, for which the ordeal of (a poison trial) was routinely obligatory. Between 1828 and 1861, the ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. which they then declared as France's protectorate. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marrying Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II and Queen Ranavalona III in succession. Over the course of Rainilaiarivony's 31-year tenure as prime minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the central government's power. Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatory. Army organization was improved and British consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the court in 1869, was adopted alongside traditional beliefs among a growing portion of the populace. Although the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island in 1890, French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast and Majunga on the west coast in December 1894 and January 1895, respectively. A French military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and other diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. Popular resistance to the French capture of Antananarivo—known as the Menalamba rebellion—broke out in December 1895 and was not suppressed until the end of 1897. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the following year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal family into exile to the island country of Réunion and Algeria. The conquest was followed by 10 years of civil war, due to the Menalamba insurrection. The "pacification" carried out by the French administration lasted more than 15 years, in response to the rural guerrillas scattered throughout the country. The French campaign against Menabe began with the in 1897, ending in 1902. The Antandroy and Mahafaly continued to oppose colonial rule, though yielded in 1904. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial conquest caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims. Slavery was abolished in 1896, freeing approximately 500,000 slaves, though many remained in their former masters' homes as servants or as sharecroppers. In many parts of the island strong discriminatory views against slave descendants are still held today. Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 and 13, focusing primarily on the French language and practical skills. commemorating the beginning of the Malagasy Uprising on 29 March 1947. Between 11,000 and 90,000 Malagasy died during the uprising, which lasted nearly two years. Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to large companies. Native chiefs loyal to the French administration were also granted part of the land. Forced labor was introduced in favor of the French companies and peasants were encouraged, through taxation, to work for wages (especially in the colonial concessions), to the detriment of small individual farms. However, the colonial period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence: the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, and the Democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation (MDRM). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the initiative of the communist activist , who was imprisoned as a result. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement gain further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear underground and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all these organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy regime. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regime of being at the root of the 1947 insurrection and was pursued by violent repression. The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar Plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews. During World War II, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary force. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on 26 June 1960. Independent state , first president of Madagascar (1960–1972) Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960–72), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates; and French teachers, textbooks, and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of farmer and student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards, Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point in 1991 when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy (1993–96), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992–2010). The new Madagascar Constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers placing significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade. In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as president of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. In 2018 the first round of Malagasy's presidential election was held on 7 November and the second on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most recent president were the main candidates. Rajoelina won the second round of the elections. Although Ravalomana lost that round, he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Rajaonarimampianina received very modest support in the first round. In January 2019, the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. In the June 2019 parliamentary elections, Rajoelina won an absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. Fifty-one seats of deputies were independent or represented small parties. Rajoelina could rule as a strongman. Mid-2021 marked the beginning of the 2021–2022 Madagascar famine, which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and leaving over one million on the verge of famine. In November 2023, Rajoelina was re-elected to another term with 58.95% of the vote in the first round of the election amid an opposition boycott and a controversy about his acquisition of French citizenship and subsequent eligibility. The turnout was 46.36%, the lowest in a presidential election in the country's history. Power and water cuts, as well as general distrust of Rajoelina's administration, sparked a series of protests in 2025 culminating in his flight and impeachment with the military taking control of the country. On 17 October 2025, Colonel Michael Randrianirina was sworn in as Madagascar's new president to succeed Rajoelina. ==Geography==

With , the second-largest island country and the fourth-largest island. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros and the French territory of Mayotte to the northwest. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the separation of East Gondwana (comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the Indian subcontinent) and West Gondwana (Africa and South America) during the Jurassic period, around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago, and Madagascar from the Indian landmass about 84 to 92 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous Period. This long history of separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation. Along the length of Madagascar's Eastern Coast runs a narrow and steep escarpment containing much of the island's remaining tropical lowland forest. To the west of this ridge lies a plateau in the center of the island ranging in altitude from above sea level. These Central Highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most densely populated part of the island, characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that formerly covered the highland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes down to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the coast. region Madagascar's highest peaks rise from three prominent highland massifs. Maromokotro in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak in the Andringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the French just inland from the east coast and running parallel to it for some . Climate map of Madagascar The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot rainy season (November–April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May–October). Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's Eastern Coast and the heavy precipitation supports the area's rainforest ecosystem. The Central Highlands are both drier and cooler. The west is drier still, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the island's southwest and southern interior. In March 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit the country. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 homeless, and caused more than US$250  million in damage. In February 2022, Cyclone Batsirai killed 121 people, weeks after Cyclone Ana killed 55 and displaced 130,000. A 2022 analysis found that in order to adapt to and avert the environmental consequences of climate change, Madagascar would have to spend 15% of its GDP. Biodiversity and conservation ''). The flowers of this orchid have a very long spur and are pollinated by a species of hawkmoth with a proboscis of matching length. As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to various endemic plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 90% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot. It is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries. The country is home to seven terrestrial ecoregions: lowland forests, subhumid forests, dry deciduous forests, ericoid thickets, spiny forests, succulent woodlands, and mangroves. More than 80% of Madagascar's 14,883 plant species are found nowhere else in the world, including five plant families. The family Didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Three-fourths The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as on all of mainland Africa, of which 165 are endemic. Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions. For instance, the drugs vinblastine and vincristine are vinca alkaloids—which are used to treat Hodgkin lymphoma, leukemia, and other cancers— were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle. The traveler's palm, known locally as Ravenala and endemic to the Eastern Rainforests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and featured in the national emblem as well as the Madagascar Airlines logo. is one of over 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar. Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna are diverse and exhibit a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. Almost all of these are classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. Since the arrival of humans on Madagascar, at least 17 species of lemur have become extinct, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species. A number of other mammals, including the catlike fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60%—including four families and 42 genera—are endemic. including the smallest known. Endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genera, and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain poorly studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of endemism among the known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, for example, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders, and dragonflies. Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest. This forest loss is largely fueled by tavy (fat), a traditional slash-and-burn agricultural practice imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers. Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its practical benefits as an agricultural technique but also for its cultural associations with prosperity, health, and venerated ancestral custom (fomba malagasy). As human population density rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago. According to a conservative estimate, about 40% of the island's original forest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thinning of remaining forest areas by 80%. In addition to traditional agricultural practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvesting of protected forests, as well as the state-sanctioned harvesting of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of precious timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor support following Ravalomanana's ousting. Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island's elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in the 17th century or earlier, most probably because of human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their large eggs for food. Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of human settlers on the island, and others became extinct over the course of the centuries as a growing human population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food. A July 2012 assessment found that the exploitation of natural resources since 2009 had had dire consequences for the island's wildlife: 90% of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammalian group, of which 23 species were classified as critically endangered. A 2023 study published in Nature Communications found that 120 of the 219 mammal species found only on Madagascar were threatened with extinction. In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an initiative to more than triple the island's protected natural areas to over or 10% of Madagascar's land surface. , areas protected by the state included five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales), and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux). In 2007 six of the national parks—Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela, and Andringitra—were declared a joint world heritage site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. Local timber merchants have been harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments. Conservation International Madagascar is Madagascar's country programme within Conservation International, with a central office in Antananarivo and regional branches in Fianarantsoa and Toamasina. Its work has included support for protected-area and landscape initiatives, including forest corridor management in eastern and southeastern Madagascar such as the Ambositra-Vondrozo Forest Corridor and the Ankeniheny-Zahamena Corridor. ==Government==

Structure , the political and economic capital of Madagascar Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state. He selects a prime minister, who recommends candidates to him to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the government, whereas legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, the Senate, and the National Assembly—although in reality the two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The Constitution establishes independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and mandates that each president is limited to a maximum of three terms. At the local level, the island's 23 regions are administered by a governor and regional council. Provinces are further subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a high constitutional court, high court of justice, supreme court, court of appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance. The courts, which adhere to civil law, lack the capacity to quickly and transparently try the cases in the judicial system, which often forces defendants to pass lengthy pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowded prisons. As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the administrative center for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the French colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration, and that city remained Madagascar's capital after the country regained independence in 1960. In 2017, the capital's population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants. After Antananarivo, the country's next largest cities are Antsirabe, Toamasina, and Mahajanga. A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed. Modern politics in Madagascar are also colored by the history of the Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence. Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs, despite its being a founding member of the Organization of African Unity, established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union. The country was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus. Again it was suspended by the African Union in March 2009, however, following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina. Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a bilateral immunity agreement of protection for the United States military. and Madagascar has embassies in 16 other countries. Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the Constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Torture by security forces is rare and state repression is low relative to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and police officers remain problems. Ravalomanana's 2004 creation of BIANCO, an anti-corruption bureau, resulted in reduced corruption among Antananarivo's lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the bureau. Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news. Military and law enforcement The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina, and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons, and other firearms. By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000. French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the Merina monarchy's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897. The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, comprising an army, navy, and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960. Since this time, the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instituted mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of sex, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991. The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power. United Nations involvement Madagascar became a member state of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960. As of January 2017, 34 police officers from Madagascar were deployed in Haiti as part of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti. In 2015, the United Nations (UN) World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-term development and reconstruction efforts and addressing of food insecurity issues in the country's southern regions by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nourishment. Small and local farmers have also been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, as well as improvement of their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions. == Economy ==

Madagascar's GDP in 2015 was estimated at US$9.98 billion, with a per-capita GDP of $411.82. Approximately 69% of the population lived below the national poverty line threshold of one dollar per day; and according to the United Nations Development Programme, 68.4% of the population was multidimensionally poor as of 2021. During 2011–15, the country's average growth rate was 2.6% but expected to have reached 4.1% in 2016, due to public works programs and growth of the service sector. As of 2011, the agriculture sector constituted 29% of the GDP, with manufacturing at 15%. Madagascar's other sources of growth have been tourism, agriculture, and the extractive industries. The fishing sector represents US$800 million or 6% of GNP and directly employs 200,000 jobs. Tourism focuses on the niche ecotourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks, and lemur species. An estimated 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis n 2010 with only 180,000 tourists visiting. Madagascar was still a very poor country in 2018 and structural brakes remained on its development: corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and backward land legislation. The economy, however, had grown since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4% per year. Almost all economic indicators were also growing: the GDP per capita was around $1,600 (PPP) for 2017, one of the lowest in the world, although growing since 2012; unemployment was also cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1% with a work force of 13.4 million as of 2017. In 2017, poverty affected 92% of Madagascar's population. The country ranked fourth globally in terms of chronic malnutrition, with nearly one in two children under the age of five experiencing stunted growth. Additionally, it was among the five countries where access to clean water was most limited. According to the NGO WaterAid, in 2021 approximately 12 million people lacked access to safe drinking water. As of 2025, poverty affected approximately 80% of Madagascar's population, based on a daily income threshold of $2.15 (2017 PPP), and nearly 1.94 million people were projected to experience high levels of acute food insecurity during the lean season. Access to clean water is a critical issue, as Madagascar remains a water-stressed country, with climate shocks and infrastructure gaps exacerbating the crisis. Natural resources and trade , a native palm Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of agricultural and mineral products. Agriculture (including the growing of raffia), mining, fishing, and forestry are mainstays of the economy. In 2017 the top exports were vanilla (US$894 million), nickel metal (US$414 million), cloves (US$288 million), knitted sweaters (US$184 million, and cobalt (US$143 million). Madagascar is the world's principal supplier of vanilla, cloves, and ylang-ylang. Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees, and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and as of 2001 it provided half of the world's supply of sapphires, which was discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s. Madagascar has one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper, and nickel. extraction of nickel at the Ambatovy mine near Moramanga and its processing near Toamasina by Sherritt International, and development of the giant onshore heavy oil deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil. Exports formed 28% of the GDP in 2009. The Madagascar-US Business Council was formed in May 2003 as a collaboration between the US Agency for International Development and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets. Imports of items such as foodstuffs, fuel, vehicles, electronics, capital goods, and consumer goods consume an estimated 52% of the GDP. Madagascar obtains most of its imports from China, France, Iran, Mauritius, and Hong Kong. Construction of the Antananarivo–Toamasina toll highway, the country's first toll highway, began in December 2022. The approximately US$1 billion infrastructure project, which would connect Madagascar's capital to its largest seaport, was expected to take four years to complete. Another project to create 348 km (216 mi) of roads and create better connections cost €235.5 million, including a €116 million grant from the European Union, a €110 million loan from the European Investment Bank, and €4.8 million in finance from the Republic of Madagascar. There are several rail lines in Madagascar. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka, and Antsirabe by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. In early 2026 a new passenger train service was launched in Antananarivo, to ease traffic in the capital. The most important seaport in the country is located on the east coast at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are significantly less used because of their remoteness. The island's newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under state control upon completion of the company's mining project near Tôlanaro around 2038. Mobile telephone and Internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately 30% of the districts are able to access the nation's several private telecommunications networks via mobile (cell) telephones or landlines. Radio broadcasting remains the principal means by which the population accesses international, national, and local news, but only state radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and private stations with local or regional range, however, provide alternatives to state broadcasting, which contributes to political polarization in reporting. Madagascar's media have historically come under varying degrees of pressure to censor their criticism of the government, with reporters occasionally threatened or harassed and media outlets periodically forced to close. but by January 2022, 22.3% of the population (6.43 million people) had access, mostly through mobile phones. ==Demographics==

Only two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the Eastern Highlands and the Eastern Coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated Western Plains. In 2024, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 32 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900, although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or East African origins or some Arab, Indian, or European ancestry. Southeast Asian features—specifically from the southern part of Borneo—are most predominant among the Merina of the Central Highlands, to 17,000 three decades later. There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese living in Madagascar in the mid-1980s. A fourth Constitution, adopted in 2010 following a constitutional referendum, can be clustered under three subgroups: Central-Eastern Malagasic, Northern Malagasic, and Southern Malagasic. The Malagasy language derives from the Southeast Barito languages, with the Maʼanyan language being its closest relative, incorporating numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords. French became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is mostly spoken as a second language among the educated population and used for international communication. Religion in Antsirabe Christianity is the most widely professed religion in Madagascar. It is predominant in the Highlands. According to the most recent national census completed in 1993, a majority of the population (52%) adhered to Indigenous beliefs, with Christianity the largest single religion at 41%, followed by Islam at 7%. In contrast, the Association of Religion Data Archives, citing the World Religion Database, estimates that in 2025 58.1% of the population was Christian, 2.1% Muslim, 39.2% of traditional faiths, and 0.6% nonreligious or adhering to other faiths. The inconsistency in religious data reflects the common practice of alternating between religious identities or syncretizing different faith traditions. Christians integrate and combine their religious beliefs with the deeply rooted practice of honoring ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial. Veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb-building as well as the Highlands practice of the famadihana, whereby a deceased family member's remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is commonly present. Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through adherence to fady, taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a creator god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra. The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations of Madagascar (Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican) and has been influential in Malagasy politics. Islam was first brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the Eastern Coast. Whereas the use of Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, Islam took hold in only a handful of Southeastern Coastal communities. They are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana. Muslims are divided between ethnic Malagasy and Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans. Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi at home, reflecting the faith's concentration among those of Indian ancestry. Rabbinic Judaism emerged on the island in the 21st century, as the common belief in a myth of Jewish origin for the Malagasy peoples inspired Messianic Jews in Antananarivo to begin researching Judaism and studying the Torah. In 2016, 121 members of the Malagasy Jewish community were formally converted to Orthodox Judaism. Health Medical centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, especially in the rural areas, and many people have recourse to traditional healers. In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remained extremely low. In 2010, Madagascar had a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million, and an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people. Fifteen percent of government spending was directed toward the health sector in 2008. As of 2011, approximately 70% of spending on health was contributed by the government and 30% by international donors and other private sources. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Teen pregnancy rates of 14.8% in 2011, much higher than the African average, were a contributing factor to rapid population growth. In 2010, the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, representing a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births, Schistosomiasis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although as of 2011 the HIV infection rate remained low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2% of the adult population; and the malaria mortality rate was also among Africa's lowest at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part because of the highest frequency use of insecticide-treated nets in Africa. In 2019, Madagascar had a measles outbreak, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths and was also affected the next year by the COVID-19 pandemic. Undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42% in 2018. According to the United Nations, more than one million people in southern Madagascar in 2021 were struggling to get enough to eat, due to what could become the country's first famine caused by climate change. Education access and quality were prioritized under Ravalomanana. Prior to the 19th century, all education in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders. but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death. By the end of the 19th century, Madagascar had the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial period, with French language and basic work skills becoming the focus of the curriculum. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers, and French as the language of instruction, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power. This policy, known as malgachization (Malagasyization), coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education. Those schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting Zafy's brief presidency from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure. Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002–09), free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13. The primary schooling cycle was five years, followed by four at the lower secondary level and three at the upper secondary level. Public expenditure on education was 2.8% of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate was estimated at 64.7%. ==Culture==

dance All the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices, and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, a number of core cultural features are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family. Other cultural elements commonly found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision; strong kinship ties; widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves. Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community. Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers. The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in its tangible expressions. The most emblematic instrument of Madagascar, the valiha, is a bamboo tube zither carried to the country by early settlers from southern Borneo, very similar in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines today. Traditional houses in Madagascar are likewise similar to those of southern Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a rectangular layout with a peaked roof and central support pillar. Reflecting widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically stone, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living. The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven lamba, has evolved into a varied and refined art. Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes. An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities. This tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa's first modern poet, and Elie Rajaonarison, an exemplar of the new wave of Malagasy poetry. Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors, and national airwaves. Madagascar also has a growing culture of classical music fostered through youth academies, organizations, and orchestras that promote youth involvement in this type of music. The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia, and other local plant materials has been used to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses, and hats. The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the Central Highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage List in 2008. Among the Antemoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to ecotourists. A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo and several other urban areas offer paintings by local artists, and annual art events, such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital, contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar. Sport and recreational activities '' is a traditional martial art of Madagascar. A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. Moraingy, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. Although it is traditionally practiced by men, women have recently begun to participate. Savika or tolon-omby, the wrestling of zebu cattle, is also practiced in many regions. In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Among the most emblematic is fanorona, a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially the result of the obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities. Western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Rugby union is considered the national sport of Madagascar. Soccer is also popular. Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands. School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball, and women's tennis. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964, and has also competed in the African Games. Because of its advanced sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the hosting rights for several of Africa's top international basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship, the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women, the 2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship, the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship, and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women. At the 2019 African Games, Madagascar's national 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal. Cuisine Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of Southeast Asian, African, Oceania, Indian, Chinese, and European culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simple traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island's 19th-century monarchs. Throughout almost the entire country, Madagascar's contemporary cuisine typically consists of a base of rice (vary) served with an accompaniment (laoka). The many varieties of laoka may be vegetarian or include animal proteins, typically featuring a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, salt, curry powder, and green peppercorns, or less commonly, other spices or herbs. In parts of the arid south and west, pastoral families may replace rice with maize, cassava, or curds made from fermented zebu milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters as well as other street foods are available across the island, as are diverse tropical and temperate-climate fruits. Locally produced beverages include fruit juices, coffee, herbal teas, and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine, and beer. Three Horses Beer is the most popular beer on the island and is considered emblematic of Madagascar. ==See also==