The earliest textual references to Japan are in the
Chinese classic texts. Within the official Chinese dynastic
Twenty-Four Histories, Japan is mentioned among the so-called '
Eastern barbarians'. The historian Wang Zhenping summarizes Wa contacts from the Han dynasty to the
Sixteen Kingdoms period: When chieftains of various Wo tribes contacted authorities at
Lelang, a Chinese commandery established in northern Korea in 108 B.C. by the Western Han court, they sought to benefit themselves by initiating contact. In A.D. 57, the first Wo ambassador arrived at the capital of the Eastern Han court (25–220); the second came in 107. Wo diplomats never called on China on a regular basis. A chronology of Japan–China relations from the first to the ninth centuries reveals this irregularity in the visits of Japanese ambassadors to China. There were periods of frequent contacts as well as of lengthy intervals between contacts. This irregularity clearly indicated that, in its diplomacy with China, Japan set its own agenda and acted on self-interest to satisfy its own needs. No Wo ambassador, for example, came to China during the second century. This interval continued well past the third century. Then within merely nine years, the female Wo ruler
Himiko sent four ambassadors to the
Wei court (220–265) in 238, 243, 245, and 247, respectively. After the death of Himiko, diplomatic contact with China slowed.
Iyoo, the female successor to Himiko, contacted the Wei court only once. The fourth century was another quiet period in China–Wo relations except for the Wo delegation dispatched to the Western Jin court (265–316) in 306. With the arrival of a Wo ambassador at the
Eastern Jin court (317–420) in 413, a new age of frequent diplomatic contact with China began. Over the next sixty years, ten Wo ambassadors called on the Southern Song court (420–479), and a Wo delegation also visited the
Southern Qi court (479–502) in 479. The sixth century saw only one Wo ambassador pay respect to the
Southern Liang court (502–557) in 502. When these ambassadors arrived in China, they acquired official titles, bronze mirrors, and military banners, which their masters could use to bolster their claims to political supremacy, to build a military system, and to attempt to expand its influence towards southern Korea.
Tuhua jianwen zhi In the section on the Goryeo kingdom, within the sixth volume of his —also known as
Experiences in Painting—Guo Ruoxu () writes: The Kingdom of Wa is also Japan []. Its original name was Wa [], but became ashamed of that name. They claim themselves Japan [Origin of the Sun] because they are in the extremity of the East. Now they are vassal to Goryeo.This could be referring to the numerous tributary missions sent to Goryeo by the
Muromachi shogunate during the
Nanboku-chō period to gain international recognition to establish legitimacy over the
southern court, which originally had the better claim to legitimacy as it possessed the
imperial regalia of Japan and the original
Emperor Go-daigo. (In the later war-torn
Sengoku period, various daimyo
would send tributes to Goryeo to gain legitimacy over their rivals, even into the Joseon dynasty.)
Wa kingdoms The Wa kingdoms on
Kyushu were documented in the
Civil war of Wa, which originated from a power struggle or political situation in the mid-2nd century CE. There were over 100 chiefdoms before the civil war. Afterward there were around 30 chiefdoms left that were ruled by shaman queen
Himiko of . Himiko restored peace and gained control of the region around 180 CE.
Shan Hai Jing in 57 CE Possibly the earliest use of
Wa occurs in the
Shan Hai Jing. The actual date of this collection of geography and mythological legends is uncertain, but estimates range from 300 BCE to 250 CE. The chapter includes
Wa among foreign places both real (such as Korea) and legendary (e.g.
Penglai Mountain). The State of Gai is south of Great Yan and north of Wo. Wo belongs to Yan. Chaoxian [Chosŏn, Korea] is east of Lieyang, south of Haibei Mountain. Lieyang belongs to Yan. Nakagawa notes that the label refers to the kingdom of
Yan (–), and that Wa ("Japan was first known by this name.") maintained a "possible tributary relationship" with Yan.
Lunheng The
Lunheng () is a compendium of essays written by
Wang Chong –80 CE, on subjects including philosophy, religion, and the natural sciences. The chapter within the
Lunhengs titled mentions both 'Wa people' and , a people in the southern part of
Guangdong province, near the
Annamese frontier, presenting tribute during the
Zhou dynasty. While disputing legends that ancient Zhou bronze
ding tripods possessed magical power to ward off evil spirits, Wang says: During the Zhou time there was universal peace. The [Yueshang] offered white pheasants to the court, the [Japanese] odoriferous plants. Since by eating these white pheasants or odoriferous plants one cannot keep free from evil influences, why should vessels like bronze tripods have such a power? Another chapter titled similarly records that
Emperor Cheng of Han (r. 51–7 BCE) was presented tributes of Vietnamese pheasants and Japanese herbs.
Book of Han The
Han Shu (
Book of Han) covers the
Former Han dynasty (206 BCE24 CE) period. Near the conclusion of the Yan entry in the
Dilizhi 地理志 ("Treatise on Geography") section, it records that "[
Wa] encompassed over 100 [nations]". Beyond Lo-lang in the sea, there are the people of Wo. They comprise more than one hundred communities. It is reported that they have maintained intercourse with China through tributaries and envoys.
Emperor Wu of Han established this Korean
Lelang Commandery in 108 BCE. Historian
Endymion Wilkinson says
Wa was used originally in the
Hanshu, "probably to refer to the inhabitants of Kyushu and the Korean peninsula. Thereafter to the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago."
Records of Wei The , the first of the
Records of the Three Kingdoms, covers the history of
Cao Wei (220–265 CE). The "Encounters with Eastern Barbarians" section describes the Wa people based upon detailed reports from Chinese envoys to Japan. It contains the first records of
Yamatai-koku, shaman-queen
Himiko, and other Japanese historical topics. The people of Wa dwell in the middle of the ocean on the mountainous islands southeast of [the prefecture] of Tai-fang. They formerly comprised more than one hundred communities. During the Han dynasty, [Wa envoys] appeared at the Court; today, thirty of their communities maintain intercourse [with us] through envoys and scribes. This
Weizhi context describes sailing from Korea to Wa and around the Japanese archipelago. For instance: A hundred
li to the south, one reaches the country of Nu, the official of which is called
shimako, his assistant being termed
hinumori. Here there are more than twenty thousand households. Tsunoda suggests this ancient , Japanese
Nakoku, was located near present-day
Hakata in Kyushu. Some 12,000
li to the south of Wa is [Japanese
Kunakoku], which is identified with the
Kumaso tribe that lived around
Higo and
Ōsumi Provinces in southern Kyushu. Beyond that: Over one thousand
li to the east of the Queen's land, there are more countries of the same race as the people of Wa. To the south, also there is the island of the dwarfs where the people are three or four feet tall. This is over four thousand
li distant from the Queen's land. Then there is the land of the naked men, as well of the black-teethed people. These places can be reached by boat if one travels southeast for a year. One
Weizhi passage records that in 238 CE the Queen of Wa sent officials with tribute to the Wei emperor
Cao Rui, who reciprocated with lavish gifts including a gold
seal with the official title "Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei". statue, Kamiyasaku Tomb,
Fukushima Prefecture, 4th–6th century Another passage relates Wa
tattooing with legendary King
Shao Kang of the
Xia dynasty. Men great and small, all tattoo their faces and decorate their bodies with designs. From olden times envoys who visited the Chinese Court called themselves "grandees". A son of the ruler Shao-k'ang of Hsia, when he was enfeoffed as lord of K'uai-chi, cut his hair and decorated his body with designs in order to avoid the attack of serpents and dragons. The Wa, who are fond of diving into the water to get fish and shells, also decorated their bodies in order to keep away large fish and waterfowl. Later, the designs became merely ornamental. 'Grandees' translates Chinese (cf. modern ), which mistranslates Japanese imperial . (The
Nihongi records that the envoy Imoko was a
taifu.) A second Wei history, the
Weilüe is no longer extant, but some sections are quoted in the 429 CE
Annotated Records of the Three Kingdoms by
Pei Songzhi. He quotes the
Weilüe, that "[Wa] people call themselves posterity of Tàibó". Taibo was the uncle of
King Wen of Zhou, who ceded the throne to his nephew and founded the ancient
state of Wu (585–473 BCE). The
Records of the Grand Historian has a section titled "Wu Taibo's Noble Family", and his shrine is located in present-day
Wuxi. Researchers have noted cultural similarities between the ancient Wu state and Wō Japan including ritual tooth-pulling, back
child carriers, and tattooing (represented with red paint on Japanese
Haniwa statues).
Book of Later Han The
Hou Han Shu (
Book of the Later Han) covers the
Later Han dynasty (25–220 CE), but was not compiled until two centuries later. The 'Wa people' are included under the "Encounters with Eastern Barbarians" section. The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Tai-fang in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities. From the time of the overthrow of Chao-hsien [northern Korea] by Emperor Wu (B.C. 140-87), nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han [dynasty] court by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office is hereditary. The King of Great Wa resides in the country of Yamadai [邪馬台国]. Comparing the opening descriptions of Wa in the
Wei Zhi and
Hou Han Shu clearly reveals that the latter is derivative. Their respective accounts of the dwarf, naked, and black-teethed peoples provide another example of copying. Leaving the queen's land and crossing the sea to the east, after a voyage of one thousand
li, the country of Kunu [狗奴國] ("Country of Dog-slaves") is reached, the people of which are of the same race as that of the Wa. They are not the queen's subjects, however. Four thousand
li away to the south of the queen's land, the dwarf's country is reached; its inhabitants are three to four feet in height. After a year's voyage by ship to the southeast of the dwarf's country, one comes to the land of naked men and also to the country of black-teethed people; here our communication service ends. This
Hou Han Shu account of Japan contains some historical details not found in the
Wei Zhi. [In 57 CE], the Wa country Nu [倭奴國] sent an envoy with tribute who called himself
ta-fu [大夫]. This country is located in the southern extremity of the Wa country. Kuang-wu bestowed on him a seal. In ... [107 CE], during the reign of An-ti (107-125), the King of Wa presented one hundred sixty slaves, making at the same time a request for an imperial audience. Tsunoda notes support for the Hakata location of Nu/Na country in the 1784 discovery at
Hakata Bay of a gold seal bearing the inscription , usually translated "Han [vassal?] King of the Wa country Nu".It should be noted, this period in Chinese history was when
China was split roughly into North and South and fiercely competing for legitimacy themselves, and so were eager to accept as many foreign countries and land as many foreign monarchs as possible. The
Song Shu gives details Japan visiting Liu Song often, indicating that the
Wa kings were desperate for their political legitimization from the Chinese emperors, asking for confirmation of titles every time the throne was succeeded. Liu Song itself has not recognized Japan's exaggerated claims over Baekje, as it had already had diplomatic ties with and in 420 already recognized Baekje's
Jeonji as the Grand Suppressor-General of the East (鎮東大將軍). Liu Song recognized the emperors as the self-proclaimed title Kings of Wa but refused to recognize them by their likewise self-proclaimed title of 安東大將軍, which is a position in Grade 2 (二品) in the Liu Song hierarchy, but instead as a grade lower, as Grade 3 (三品) Peacekeeper-General of the East. Wang Jianqun (王健群), pointed out that Wa's frequent requests for recognition undermine credence to their claim; many of their self-proclaimed titles were rejected and they were given a lower grade title. Noh Jungkuk (노중국) further pointed out many of the Wa requests seem to originate from a monarch who does not even know the situation of the places he claims to rule. He asks for redundant recognition of command over
Imna and
Gaya which probably describe the same area; he proclaims rulership of Mok-han, which had been annexed into
Baekje 100 years prior, rendering the Wa claim redundant; and proclaims rule over
Jinhan, which was a confederacy
whose constituents had been individually annexed into Silla between 200 and 400 years prior. This is also redundant alongside laying claim to Silla (traditionally a bitter enemy with Wa). In 479, as a celebratory gesture and to establish legitimacy through the diplomatic position as granter of titles in the
sinosphere, the newborn
Southern Qi dynasty would give out titles without being prompted, such as voluntarily entitling the King of Wa to what Baekje was already entitled by Liu Song in 420, the Grand Suppressor-General of the East (鎮東大將軍). In 502, the newborn
Liang dynasty would make similar celebratory gestures, giving out titles such as Conqueror-General of the East (征東將軍) to the King of Wa, while entitling
Dongseong of Baekje to Grand Conqueror-General of the East (征東大將軍) the same year, unaware that both have deceased.
Book of Liang The 635 CE
Liang Shu 梁書 "Book of Liang", which covers history of the
Liang dynasty (502–557), records the Buddhist monk
Hui Shen's trip to Wa and the legendary
Fusang. It refers to Japan as
Wa without a 'people' or 'country' suffix, under the "Eastern Barbarians" section, and begins with the
Taibo legend. The Wa say of themselves that they are posterity of Tàibó. According to custom, the people are all tattooed. Their territory is over 12,000
li from
Daifang. It is located approximately east of
Kuaiji [on
Hangzhou Bay], though at an extremely great distance. Later texts repeat this myth of Japanese descent from Taibo. The 648 CE
Jin Shu ("Book of Jin") about the
Jin dynasty (266–420 CE) uses a different "call" verb,
wèi 謂 "say; call; name" instead of
yún 云 "say; speak; call", "They call themselves the posterity of Tàibó [自謂太伯之後]". The 1084 CE Chinese
universal history Zizhi Tongjian speculates, "The present-day Japan is also said to be posterity of Tàibó of Wu; perhaps when Wu was destroyed, [a member of] a collateral branch of the royal family disappeared at sea and became Wo.".
Book of Sui The 636 CE
Sui Shu ("Book of Sui") records the history of the
Sui dynasty (581–618) when China was reunified.
Wōguó/
Wakoku is entered under "Eastern Barbarians", and said to be located off of
Baekje and
Silla (see
Hogong), two of the
Three Kingdoms of Korea. Wa-kuo is situated in the middle of the great ocean southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousand
li away by water and land. The people dwell on mountainous islands. During the Wei dynasty, over thirty countries [of Wa], each of which boasted a king, held intercourse with China. These barbarians do not know how to measure distance by
li and estimate it by days. Their domain is five months' journey from east to west, and three months' from north to south; and the sea lies on all sides. The land is high in the east and low in the west. In 607 CE, the
Sui Shu records that "King Tarishihoko" (a mistake for
Empress Suiko) sent an envoy, Buddhist monks, and tribute to
Emperor Yang. Her official message is quoted using the word
Tiānzǐ 天子 'Son of
Heaven', 'emperor'. "The
Son of Heaven in the land where the sun rises addresses a letter to the Son of Heaven in the land where the sun sets. We hope you are in good health." When the Emperor saw this letter, he was displeased and told the chief official of foreign affairs that this letter from the barbarians was discourteous, and that such a letter should not again be brought to his attention. In 608, the Emperor dispatched Pei Ching as envoy to Wa, and he returned with a Japanese delegation. The Japanese
Nihongi also records these imperial envoys of 607 and 608, but with a differing Sino-Japanese historical perspective. It records more details, such as naming the envoy Imoko Wono no Omi and translator Kuratsukuri no Fukuri, but not the offensive Chinese translation. According to the
Nihongi, when Imoko returned from China, he apologized to Suiko for losing Yang's letter because Korean men "searched me and took it from me". When the Empress received Pei, he presented a proclamation contrasting Chinese
Huángdì 皇帝 'emperor' with
Wōwáng 倭王 'Wa king', "The Emperor greets the King of Wa." According to the
Nihongi, Suiko gave Pei a different version of the imperial letter, contrasting Japanese
Tennō 天皇 'Japanese emperor' and
Kōtei 皇帝 'emperor' (Chinese
tiānhuáng and
huángdì) instead of using "Son of Heaven". The Emperor of the East respectfully addresses the Emperor of the West. Your Envoy, P'ei Shih-ch'ing, Official Entertainer of the Department of foreign receptions, and his suite, having arrived here, my long-harbored cares were dissolved. This last month of autumn is somewhat chilly. How is Your Majesty? We trust well. We are in our usual health. Aston quotes the 797 CE
Shoku Nihongi history that this 607 Japanese mission to China first objected to writing
Wa with the Chinese character . "Wono no Imoko, the Envoy who visited China, (proposed to) alter this term into Nippon, but the Sui Emperor ignored his reasons and would not allow it. The term Nippon was first used in the period [...] 618–626." Another Chinese authority gives 670 as the date when Nippon began to be officially used in China. ) is depicted below the island of "Japanese country" (, probably modern
Honshu) and above the
Ryukyu Islands () on the right-hand side of the
Sihai Huayi Zongtu, a 16th-century Chinese world map.
Old Book of Tang The custom of writing "Japan" as
Wa ended during the
Tang dynasty. Japanese scribes coined the name
Nihon or
Nippon and replaced
Wa with a more flattering . This linguistic change is recorded in two official Tang histories. The 945 CE
Old Book of Tang (199A) has the oldest Chinese reference to . The "Eastern Barbarians" section lists both
Wakoku and
Nipponkoku, giving three explanations: Nippon is an alternate name for
Wa, or the Japanese disliked
Wakoku because it was , or Japan was once a small part of old
Wakoku. The 1050 CE
New Book of Tang which has a heading for Japan under the "Eastern Barbarians", gives more details. Japan in former times was called Wa-nu. It is 14,000
li distant from our capital, situated to the southeast of Silla in the middle of the ocean. It is five months' journey to cross Japan from east to west, and a three-month journey from south to north. Regarding the change in autonyms, the
Xin Tang Shu says. [In 670], an embassy came to the Court [from Japan] to offer congratulations on the conquest of Koguryŏ. Around this time, the Japanese who had studied Chinese came to dislike the name Wa and changed it to Nippon. According to the words of the [Japanese] envoy himself, that name was chosen because the country was so close to where the sun rises. Some say, [on the other hand,] that Japan was a small country which had been subjugated by the Wa, and that the latter took over its name. As this envoy was not truthful, doubt still remains. [The envoy] was, besides, boastful, and he said that the domains of his country were many thousands of square
li and extended to the ocean on the south and on the west. In the northeast, he said, the country was bordered by mountain ranges beyond which lay the land of the hairy men. Subsequent Chinese histories refer to Japan as and only mention
Wa as an old name.
Gwanggaeto Stele The earliest Korean reference to Japanese
Wa (
Wae in Korean) is the 414 CE
Gwanggaeto Stele that was erected to honor King
Gwanggaeto the Great of
Goguryeo (r. 391–413 CE). This memorial stele, which has the oldest usage of
Wakō (倭寇, "Japanese pirates",
Waegu in Korean), records
Wa as a military ally of
Baekje in their battles with Goguryeo and
Silla. Some scholars interpret these references to mean not only 'Japanese' but also '
Gaya peoples' in the southern
Korean Peninsula. For instance, Lee suggests: If Kokuryo could not destroy Baekje itself, it wished for someone else to do so. Thus, in another sense, the inscription may have been wishful thinking. At any rate, Wae denoted both the southern Koreans and people who lived on the southwest Japanese islands, the same Kaya people who had ruled both regions in ancient times. Wae did not denote Japan alone, as was the case later. "It is generally thought that these
Wae were from the archipelago," write Lewis and Sesay, "but we as yet have no conclusive evidence concerning their origins". ==Notes==