Hamza

Hamza is derived from the verb '''' () meaning 'to prick, goad, drive' or 'to provide (a letter or word) with hamzah'. == Hamzat al-waṣl () ==

The hamza () on its own is '' (, "the hamzah'' which breaks, ceases or halts", i.e. the broken, cessation, halting"), otherwise referred to as ' (), that is, a phonemic glottal stop unlike the ' (, "the hamzah which attaches, connects or joins", i.e. the attachment, connection, joining"), a non-phonemic glottal stop produced automatically only if at the beginning of an utterance, otherwise assimilated. Although the ' can be written as an alif carrying a ' sign (only in the Quran), it is normally indicated by a plain alif without a hamza (). occurs in: • the definite article '''' • some short words with two of their three-consonant roots apparent: ism , ibn , imru' (fem. ''imra'ah ), ithnāni (fem. ithnatāni'' ) • the imperative verbs of forms I and VII to X • the perfective aspect of verb forms VII to X and their verbal nouns • some borrowed words that start with consonant clusters such as '''' It is not pronounced following a vowel (, ''). This event occurs in the definite article, or at the beginning of a noun following a preposition, or a verb following a relative pronoun. If the definite article al- is followed by a sun letter, -l- also gives way for the next letter for lām'' () is assimilated. == Orthography ==

The hamza can be written either alone, as if it were a letter, or with a carrier, when it becomes a diacritic: • Low hamza (only one form): Position in word: Isolated Final Medial Initial Glyph form:(Help) ء ء ء (none) • By itself: • High Hamza (used in Kazakh; only one form, though used in medial and final positions where it is non-joining), after any Arabic letter (if that letter has an initial or medial form, these forms will be changed to isolated or final forms respectively): Position in word: Isolated Final Medial Initial Glyph form:(Help) ٴ ٴ ٴ (none) • Three-Quarter High Hamza (used in Malay; only one form, though used in medial and final positions where it is non-joining): Position in word: Isolated Final Medial Initial Glyph form:(Help) ء ء ء (none) This form has been proposed for the inclusion to the Unicode Standard, but the Unicode Script Ad Hoc Group stated that it can be unified with the existing . The form above currently being displayed using a standard Arabic Hamza with an altered vertical position. • Combined with a letter: • Above or below an : • Above a : • Above a dotless , also called (). Joined medially and finally in Arabic, other languages written in Arabic-based script may have it initially as well (or it may take its isolated or initial shape, even in Arabic, after a non-joining letter in the same word): • Above . In the Persian and Pashto alphabets, not used in Arabic: • Above . In the Pashto alphabet, not used in Arabic: • Above . In the Khowar alphabet, not used in Arabic: • Above a . In the Urdu alphabet, not used in Arabic: • Above a . In the Urdu alphabet, not used in Arabic == Arabic "seat" rules ==

The rules for writing hamza differ somewhat between languages even if the writing is based on the Arabic abjad. The following addresses Arabic specifically. Summary • Initial hamza is always placed over ( for or ) or under ( for ) an alif. • Medial hamza will have a seat or be written alone: • Surrounding vowels determine the seat of the hamza with preceding long vowels and diphthongs (such as or ) being ignored. • ' () over ' () over '''' () if there are two conflicting vowels that count; on the line () if there are none. • As a special case, ' and ' require hamza on the line, instead of over an alif as one would expect. (See III.1b below.) • Final hamza will have a seat or be written alone: • Alone on the line when preceded by a long vowel or final consonant. • Has a seat matching the final short vowel for words ending in a short vowel. • Two adjacent alifs are never allowed. If the rules call for this, replace the combination by a single alif maddah. Detailed description • Logically, hamza is just like any other letter, but it may be written in different ways. It has no effect on the way other letters are written. In particular, surrounding long vowels are written just as they always are, regardless of the "seat" of the hamza—even if this results in the appearance of two consecutive wāws or yāʾs. • The hamza can be written in five ways: on its own ("on the line"), under an alif, or over an alif, wāw, or yāʾ, called the "seat" of the hamza. When written over yāʾ, the dots that would normally be written underneath are omitted. • When according to the rules below, a hamza with an alif seat would occur before an alif which represents the vowel ā, a single alif is instead written with the maddah symbol over it. • The rules for hamza depend on whether it occurs as the initial, middle, or final letter (not sound) in a word. (Thus, final short inflectional vowels do not count, but '''' is written as alif + nunation, counts, and the hamza is considered medial.) I. If the hamza is initial: • If the following letter is a short vowel, ' (a) (as in ') or ' (u) (as in '), the hamza is written over a place-holding alif; ' (i) (as in ') the hamza is written under a place-holding alif and is called "hamza on a wall." • If the letter following the hamza is an alif itself: (as in '''') alif maddah will occur. II. If the hamza is final: • If a short vowel precedes, the hamza is written over the letter (' or ') corresponding to the short vowel. • Otherwise, the hamza is written on the line (as in '''' "thing"). III. If the hamza is medial: • If a long vowel or diphthong precedes, the seat of the hamza is determined mostly by what follows: :*If ' or ' follows, the hamza is written over '''' or , accordingly. :*Otherwise, the hamza would be written on the line. If a ' precedes, however, that would conflict with the stroke joining the ' to the following letter, so the hamza is written over . (as in ) • Otherwise, both preceding and following vowels have an effect on the hamza. :*If there is only one vowel (or two of the same kind), that vowel determines the seat (' or '). :*If there are two conflicting vowels, ' takes precedence over ', ' over ' so '''' 'hundred' is written , with hamza over the . :*Alif-maddah occurs if appropriate. Not surprisingly, the complexity of the rules causes some disagreement. • Barron's 201 Arabic Verbs follows the rules exactly (but the sequence '''' does not occur; see below). • John Mace's Teach Yourself Arabic Verbs and Essential Grammar presents alternative forms in almost all cases when hamza is followed by a long '. The motivation appears to be to avoid two 's in a row. Generally, the choice is between the form following the rules here or an alternative form using hamza over yāʾ in all cases. Example forms are masʾūl (, [adj: responsible, in charge, accountable]; [noun: official, functionary]), yajīʾūna (, verb: jāʾa "to come"), yashāʾūna (, verb: shāʾa "to will, to want, to intend, to wish"). Exceptions: :*In the sequence ' (', verb: ''sā'a'' "to act badly, be bad") the alternatives are hamza on the line , or hamza over ' , when the rules here would call for hamza over '. Perhaps, the resulting sequence of three wāws would be especially repugnant. :*In the sequence '' (, verb: qaraʾa "to read, to recite, to review/ study") the alternative form has hamza over alif, not .'' :*The forms yabṭuʾūna (, verb: baṭuʾa "to be or become slow, late or backward, "to come late", "to move slowly") and yaʾūbu (, verb: "move to the back", "to return to come back", "to repent") have no alternative form. (Note '''' with the same sequence of vowels.) • Haywood and Nahmad's A new Arabic Grammar of the Written Language does not write the paradigms out in full, but in general agrees with John Mace's book, including the alternative forms and sometimes lists a third alternative with the entire sequence ' written as a single hamza over ' instead of as two letters. • Al-Kitāb fī Taʿallum... presents paradigms with hamza written the same way throughout, regardless of the rules above. Thus ' with hamza only over alif, ' with hamza only over , '' with hamza only over alif, but that is not allowed in any of the previous three books. (It appears to be an overgeneralization on the part of the al-Kitāb'' writers.) == Overview tables ==

The letter (ṭ) stands here for any consonant. :Note: The table shows only potential combinations and their graphic representations according to the spelling rules; not every possible combination exists in Arabic. Colours: Notes: == Hamza in other Arabic-script alphabets ==

Jawi alphabet In the Jawi alphabet (Arabic script used to write Malay), hamza is used for various purposes, but is rarely used to denote a glottal stop except in certain Arabic loanwords. The default isolated hamza form () is the second least common form of hamza, • Separating vowel letters of a diphthongs such as ai, au, and oi when present in certain positions within words • Preceding certain suffixes such as (-an) and (-i) • To write non-Malay single-syllable words (most commonly names) that starts with a vowel other than alif • Glottal stops for archaic words (specifically titles and names which have a fixed spelling) • In some instances Arabic loanwords which change their original spelling may change the hamza to the three-quarter high hamza instead This exact form is not available in Unicode Standard, as it is unified with , but the common way of writing this form is by using a normal hamza and altering its vertical position. Hamza above alif is used for prefixed words using the prefixes , , or , where its root word starts with a vowel (such as (), becomes ()). This form as well as hamza below alif are both also in Arabic loanwords where the original spelling has been retained. The hamza above ya is known as a "housed hamzah" (), and is most commonly used in Arabic loanwords. It is also used for words which repeat or combine "i" and "é" vowels like ( meaning "taunt") and for denoting a glottal stop in the middle of a word after a consonant such as (subeditor). More commonly, however, it is used for denoting a schwa after the vowels "i", "é", "o", and "u" such as (chandelier). Hamza above waw is completely removed from the Jawi alphabet, and for Arabic loanwords using the letter, it is replaced with a normal waw followed by a three-quarter high hamza instead. Urdu (Shahmukhi) alphabet In the Urdu alphabet, hamza does not occur at the initial position over alif since alif is not used as a glottal stop in Urdu. In the middle position, if hamza is surrounded by vowels, it indicates a diphthong or syllable break between the two vowels. In the middle position, if hamza is surrounded by only one vowel, it takes the sound of that vowel. In the final position hamza is silent or produces a glottal sound, as in Arabic. In Urdu, hamza usually represents a diphthong between two vowels. It rarely acts like the Arabic hamza except in a few loanwords from Arabic. Hamza is also added at the last letter of the first word of ezāfe compound to represent -e- if the first word ends with yeh or with he or over bari yeh if it is added at the end of the first word of the ezāfe compound. Hamza is always written on the line in the middle position unless in waw if that letter is preceded by a non-joiner letter; then, it is seated above waw. Hamza is also seated when written above baṛi yeh. In the final form, Hamza is written in its full form. In ezāfe, hamza is seated above choṭi he, yeh or baṛi yeh of the first word to represent the -e- of ezāfe compound. Uyghur alphabet In the Uyghur Arabic alphabet, the hamza is not a distinct letter, but indicates a glottal stop preceding a vowel. Combinations of hamza and the vowel, such as (a), are considered independent letters, while the vowel letters in isolation (without hamza, such as ) are considered their joining forms. Hence, the vowel letters that do not join with the following letter have four joining forms (isolated and final, both with and without hamza), while the letters (ë) and (i) have eight forms. Kazakh alphabet In the Kazakh Arabic alphabet, the hamza is used only at the beginning of words, and the only form is high hamza. It is not used to denote any sound, but to indicate that the vowels in the word will be the four front vowels: (ä), (ı), (ö), (ü). However, it is not used for words containing another front vowel (e) or words containing four consonants (g), (ğ), (k), (q). Persian alphabet In the Persian alphabet, the hamza often denotes glottal stop (a similar function to the letter 'ayn ⟨⟩), and is commonly found in Arabic loanwords only. Hamza below alif ⟨إ‎⟩ is completely removed from the Persian alphabet, and in Arabic loanwords, alif maddah ⟨آ⟩ is used instead. The hamza may be used over the letters heh or yeh for the ezāfe suffix, though a non-connecting yeh may be used instead. ==Wavy hamza in Kashmiri==

The Kashmiri language written in Arabic script includes the diacritic or "wavy hamza". In Kashmiri the diacritic is called amālü mad when used above alif: ٲ to create the vowel . Kashmiri calls the "wavy hamza" as sāyi mad when below the alif: اٟ to create the sound . == Latin representations ==

There are different ways to represent hamza in Latin transliteration: • In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), the sound of the glottal stop is represented by the letter ʔ, resembling a dotless question mark. • There is a tradition of using , the simple apostrophe; and a grave accent represents `ayn (). • Some standard transliterations such as DIN 31635 transliterate it with a modifier letter right half ring ʾ. Others such as ALA-LC use the modifier letter apostrophe ʼ or sometimes substitute the similar-looking Right Single Quotation Mark ’. • Different unstandardized symbols exist such as 2 in Arabic chat alphabet. == See also ==