Currency In 1503, after a hiatus of seventy years, the government resumed the production of coins. They attempted to bolster their value by issuing a decree that reduced the worth of coins from previous dynasties by half, and by reiterating the prohibition on the use of privately minted coins. By 1507, it became evident that the new coins were not performing well, and the government was forced to accept the old coins at their full value. Private minting continued to thrive, with profits exceeding expenses by five times. The state eventually shut down the mints again in 1509. During the last decades of the 15th century, private coins were the dominant currency, and the
Hongwu era coins from the early years of the dynasty were no longer in circulation. Officials referred to Tang and Song coins as "old coins" (
guqian,
jiuqian), while merchants in the market referred to them as "good coins" (
haoqian). The "new coins" of the first decade of the 16th century were known as "bogus coins" (
daohao) and were only valued at half their face value by merchants. In the Zhengde era, their value decreased even further to only a third or a quarter of their face value. After 1510, merchants generally preferred old coins. Ming coins were only accepted at half their face value, while private light coins were only worth a quarter of their face value. However, it was the latter that dominated the market. In the early 1520s in Jiangnan, good coins that had previously been in circulation alongside new ones disappeared, leaving only the new, light coins. By 1527, the value of these coins had dropped to one-fifth or even one-tenth of their nominal value.
Relations with Southeast Asia and the arrival of the Portuguese During the Hongzhi and Zhengde eras, the government showed little interest in Southeast Asia, in stark contrast to the early 15th century when it actively enforced "Pax Ming" in the region. Even when the Portuguese showed aggression towards Malacca and the Sultan there requested help, the Beijing politicians remained lethargic, but foreign trade with Southeast Asia continued to thrive. In 1510, local authorities recognized the separation of maritime trade and tribute relations and began taxing merchant ships arriving from abroad. By 1517, the import tax was set at 20% of the value of the ship's cargo. This de facto legalization of foreign trade led to its expansion, benefiting buyers and increasing government revenues. However, the uncontrolled mobility of traders, often armed, caused concern among some officials, who called for restrictions on trade and the establishment of order. These officials' views gained the upper hand after the death of the Zhengde Emperor and the rise of the
Jiajing government, resulting in an anti-trade ordinance in 1524. In 1513, the first Portuguese explorer,
Jorge Álvares, arrived in China. Three years later, in 1516, Portuguese captain
Rafael Perestrello arrived in Guangzhou with his ship, which had a Malayan crew. This marked the beginning of trade between China and Europe. The following year,
Fernão Pires de Andrade's squadron sailed from Malacca to China with the intention of establishing official trade and diplomatic relations. The envoy,
Tomé Pires, carried a letter from King
Manuel I of Portugal to the Chinese emperor and stayed in Guangzhou until the beginning of 1520, when he was finally able to travel to the imperial court. Despite the assistance of Jiang Bin, he was unable to secure an audience with the Zhengde Emperor in the summer of 1520 in
Nanjing, where the Emperor was staying at the time, or later in
Beijing. After the Zhengde Emperor's death in April 1521, the new government refused to accept him and sent him back to Guangzhou. Meanwhile, Fernão de Andrade's brother, Simão de Andrade, incited the anger of the Chinese with his aggressive actions and the purchase of children, including those who were kidnapped from wealthy families. Rumors began to circulate in Guangzhou that the Portuguese were cannibals who consumed children (although in reality, they were selling them into slavery, and some were later discovered in
Diu, India). The Portuguese's defiance of Ming authorities led to armed conflicts, and in 1521, a Ming fleet defeated them at the
Battle of Tunmen. As a result, the Portuguese were expelled from China. Upon returning to the south, Tomé Pires was held responsible by the local authorities for the violent behavior of his comrades and was imprisoned. He ultimately died in prison in 1524. In addition to new crops,
syphilis also spread from America to China. It first appeared in Guangzhou in 1505, even before the arrival of the Portuguese.
Culture 's cursive script The Zhengde Emperor was known for his love of songwriting and singing, as well as his appreciation for court music. He also placed a strong emphasis on funding the arts. During his reign, the production of high-quality porcelain, including blue and white, polychrome, monochrome, and enameled varieties, flourished for export. These pieces often featured inscriptions in
Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic. In addition, a new type of pottery called
Yixing pottery was developed in the region west of
Lake Tai, which was referred to as "boccaro" by the Portuguese. During the Zhengde Emperor's reign, there was also a significant development in Neo-Confucian philosophy, thanks to the work of Wang Yangming, who is considered the most important thinker of the Ming era. Unlike
Zhu Xi, who focused on the concept of
li (principle), Wang Yangming centered his philosophy around the idea of
xin (heart/mind). He also developed a theory of the unity of cognition and action. Publishers had begun to release collections of songs in
colloquial language during the Chenghua Emperor's reign, but it was during the Zhengde Emperor's reign that the number of published collections saw a significant increase. This could be attributed to the Zhengde Emperor's popularity as a singer and the growing popularity of theater during that time. One of the most influential figures in literature during this period was
Li Dongyang, a grand secretary who wrote poems in the secretariat style and emphasized the importance of scholars with broad knowledge (taking Song's
Ouyang Xiu as his role model). He also played a crucial role in educating and inspiring a new generation of writers and poets. In
Jiangnan, the hub of artistic activity, the most prominent calligraphers, painters, and poets included
Wen Zhengming (1470–1559). Wen was a master of poetry, calligraphy, and painting, and was known for his monochrome or lightly colored landscapes in the style of
Shen Zhou, as well as his "
green-blue landscapes" in the Tang style. He was particularly skilled in
regular and
seal script as a calligrapher. Another highly admired artist of the time was
Zhu Yunming, who was known for his "
crazy cursive script".
Tang Yin was also recognized for his
semi-cursive script, landscapes, and figure painting. ==Legacy==