Kui frequently occurs in
Chinese classic texts. Although some early texts are heterogeneous compositions of uncertain dates, the following discussion is presented in roughly chronological order. Early authors agreed that the mountain dragon-demon Kui had but disagreed whether this also applied to Shun's music master Kui. Since the Chinese word ambiguously means "foot; leg" or "enough; sufficient; fully; as much as",
yizu can mean "one foot; one leg" or "one is enough". "The
Confucianists," explains Eberhard, "who personified K'ui and made him into a 'master of music', detested the idea that K'ui had only one leg and they discussed it 'away'" (e.g.,
Hanfeizi,
Lüshi Chunqiu, and
Xunzi below). Instead of straightforwardly reading as "Kui one foot", Confucianist revisionism construes it as "Kui, one was enough." There is further uncertainty whether the mythical Kui was "one footed" or "one legged". Compare the English "one-footed" words
uniped "a creature having only one foot (or leg)" and
monopod "a creature having only one foot (or leg); a one-legged stand".
Shujing The
Shujing uses in three chapters; Current Text chapters mention
Shun's legendary Music Minister named Kui, and Old Text "
Old Text" chapter has
kuikui "grave; dignified". (New or Current Text and Old Text refer to different collections of Shangshu material with the Current Text being collected before the Old Text version. There is a long history of debate about the relative authenticity of the Old Text version as well as the dating of the constituent texts in both the Current and Old Text versions; see the article on the
Shujing for more information.) First, the "Canon of Shun" says the prehistoric ruler Shun appointed Kui as Music Minister and as Communication Minister. The Di said, 'Kui, I appoint you to be Director of Music, and to teach our sons, so that the straightforward shall yet be mild; the gentle, dignified: the strong, not tyrannical: and the impetuous, not arrogant. Poetry is the expression of earnest thought; singing is the prolonged utterance of that expression; the notes accompany that utterance, and they are harmonized themselves by the standard tubes. (In this way) the eight different kinds of musical instruments can be adjusted so that one shall not take from or interfere with another; and spirits and men are brought into harmony.' Kui said, 'I smite the (sounding-) stone, I gently strike it, and the various animals lead on one another to dance.' Second, "Yi and Ji" elaborates the first account. Kui said, 'When the sounding-stone is tapped or struck with force, and the lutes are strongly swept or gently touched, to accompany the singing, the progenitors (of the Di) come (to the service), the guest of Yu is in his place, and all the princes show their virtue in giving place to one another. (In the court) below (the hall) there are the flutes and hand-drums, which join in at the sound of the rattle, and cease at that of the stopper, when the organ and bells take their place. (This makes) birds and beasts fall moving. When the nine parts of the service, as arranged by the Di, have all been performed, the male and female phœnix come with their measured gambolings (into the court).' Kui said, 'Oh! when I smite the (sounding-) stone, or gently strike it, the various animals lead on one another to dance, and all the chiefs of the official departments become truly harmonious.' Third, "The Counsels of the Great Yu" uses to praise Shun's
filial piety for his father ; "with respectful service he appeared before Gu-sou, looking grave and awe-struck, till Gu also became transformed by his example. Entire sincerity moves spiritual beings."
Chunqiu and Zuozhuan The (c. 6th–5th centuries BCE)
Chunqiu and (early 4th century BCE)
Zuozhuan use Kui as the name of a feudal state and of the legendary Music Master. The
Chunqiu history records that in 634 BCE the army of
Chu destroyed ; "In autumn, an officer of Ts'oo extinguished K'wei, and carried the viscount of K'wei back with them." Zuo's commentary notes the viscount of Kui, also written , was spared because the ruling families of both Chu and Kui had the same surname (see
Guoyu below). The
Zuozhuan for 514 BCE provides details about Kui's raven-haired wife and their swinish son . In ancient times the prince of Jing had a daughter, with splendid black hair and very beautiful, so that her brightness cast a light around her, and she was named 'the dark Lady'. The prince K'wei minister of Music, married her, and she bore to him Pih-fung, who in truth had the heart of a pig, insatiably covetous and gluttonous, quarrelsome and perverse without measure, so that men called him 'the great Pig'.
Guoyu The (c. 5th–4th centuries BCE)
Guoyu uses as a surname and a demon name. The discusses the origins of
Chinese surnames and notes that Kui was the tribal ancestor of the clan. Since Kui was a legendary descendant of the fire god and a member of the Mi clan, Eberhard explains, he was a relative to the ruling clans of Chu and Yue. The "Discourses of Lu" records Confucius explaining three categories of , including the
Kui who supposedly resides in the . Ki Hwan-tszĕ, a grandee of the state of Lu, caused a well to be dug, when they fetched up something like an earthen pot with a goat in it. He had Chung-ni (Confucius) interrogated about it, in these words: "I dug a well, and got a dog; tell me what this is." On which the Sage answered: "According to what I have learned, it must be a goat; for I have heard that apparitions between trees and rocks are called khwei and wang-liang, while those in the water are lung or dragons, and wang-siang, and those in the ground are called fen-yang. De Groot says later scholars accepted this "division of spectres into those living in mountains and forests, in the water, and in the ground", which is evidently "a folk-conception older, perhaps much older, than the time of Confucius." For instance,
Wei Zhao's (3rd century CE) commentary on the
Guoyu: Some say that the khwei have one leg. The people of Yueh (Chehkiang and northern Fuhkien) style them (sao) of the hills, which character occurs also in the form (siao). They exist in Fu-yang (about the present Hang-cheu), have a human countenance and an ape-like body, and can speak. Some say that the one-legged wang-liang are spirits (tsing) of the hills, who by imitating human voices bewilder people.
Xunzi The (early 3rd century BCE) Confucianist
Xunzi mentions Kui twice. "Dispelling Obsession" says, "Many men have loved music, but Kui alone is honored by later ages as its master, because he concentrated upon it. Many men have loved righteousness, but Shun alone is honored by later ages as its master, because he concentrated upon it." Another chapter says when Kui rectified music, the wild birds and animals submitted.
Hanfeizi The (c. 3rd century BCE)
Hanfeizi gives two versions of Duke Ai of
Lu (r. 494–468 BCE) asking Confucius whether Kui had one leg. The ruler Ngai of Lu asked Confucius, saying: "I have heard that there has lived in ancient times a certain Khwei with one leg; may we really believe in his one-leggedness?" Confucius answered: "No; he was no monopod; he was a choleric, perverse, ill-natured man, who raised much discontent; but he escaped being by reason of this killed by the hand of man on account of his trustworthiness, for everybody said: 'This is the only man of one piece and complete'. Thus Khwei was not one-legged, but he was a man of a piece and complete." The ruler Ngai now said: "Thus the fact is, that he was solid and complete". According to another reading, the ruler Ngai asked Confucius, saying: "I have heard that Khwei had one leg; does this deserve belief?" The answer was: "Khwei was a man; why should he have had no more than one leg? He had no other peculiarity but that he was versed in music". Yao said: "Khwei is of a piece and complete!" and he made him his Director of Music, and therefore princely men have described him as a man of a piece and complete, but not with one leg.
Lüshi Chunqiu The (c. 239 BCE)
Lüshi Chunqiu uses several times. "Scrutinizing Hearsay" records another version of Duke Ai asking Confucius about Kui's alleged one-footedness, and it states that Kui came from the . As a general principle, every statement that one hears must be maturely assessed. When they have to do with human affairs, they must be tested against reason. Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius, "The rectifier of music, Kui, is said to have had one foot. Is that true?" Confucius answered, "Long ago, Shun wanted to use music to transmit his teachings to the whole world, so he ordered Zhong Li to select Kui from among the 'jungle' people and promote him. Shun made him rectifier of music. Kui thereupon rectified the six pitch-standards and tuned harmoniously the five tones, circulating the winds of the eight directions and thus caused the whole world to submit generally to Shun's rule. Zhong Li wanted to find more men like Kui, but Shun said, 'Music is the vital essence of Heaven and Earth and the key to success and failure. Hence, only the sage is capable of creating harmony. Harmony is the root of all music. Kui is capable of making music harmonious and thereby of making the whole world peaceful. There is only one like Kui, and that is enough. Therefore, the statement traditionally taken to mean 'Kui has one foot,' really means 'with Kui, one is enough' ." One or two of "The Almanacs" in
Lüshi Chunqiu mention
kui. "On the Proper Kind of Dyeing" mentions a teacher named Meng Sukui : "It is not only the state that is subject to influences, for scholar-knights as well are subject to influences. Confucius studied under
Lao Dan,
Meng Sukui, and
Jingshu." "Music of the Ancients" has two passages with that commentators read as . When the Sovereign Yao ascended the throne he commanded Kui to create musical performances. Kui thereupon made songs in imitation of the sounds of the forests and valleys, he covered earthenware tubs with fresh hides and beat on them, and he slapped stones and hit rocks to imitate the sounds of the jade stone chimes of the Supreme Sovereign, with which he made the hundred wild beasts dance. … The Sovereign Shun than ordered Kui to perform "Nine Summonings," "Six Orderings," and "Six Flowers," through which he illuminated the Power of the Sovereign. Note that the
Lüshi Chunqiu says Kui was music master for both Yao and Shun, instead of only Shun.
Zhuangzi The (c. 3rd–2nd centuries BCE) Daoist
Zhuangzi mentions Kui in two chapters. "Autumn Floods" describes Kui as a one-legged creature. The K'uei envies the millipede, the millipede envies the snake, the snake envies the wind, the wind envies the eye, and the eye envies the mind. The K'uei said to the millipede, "I have this one leg that I hop along on, though I make little progress. Now how in the world do you manage to work all those ten thousand legs of yours?" The millipede said, "You don't understand. Haven't you ever watched a man spit? He just gives a hawk and out it comes, some drops as big as pearls, some as fine as mist, raining down in a jumble of countless particles. Now all I do is put in motion the heavenly mechanism in me ‑ I'm not aware of how the thing works."
Burton Watson glosses Kui as "A being with only one leg. Sometimes it is described as a spirit or a strange beast, sometimes as a historical personage – the Music Master K'uei." "Mastering Life" describes Kui as a hill demon in a story about Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685–643 BCE) seeing a ghost and becoming ill. Duke Huan said, "But do ghosts really exist?" "Indeed they do. There is the Li on the hearth and the Chi in the stove. The heap of clutter and trash just inside the gate is where the Lei‑t'ing lives. In the northeast corner the Pei‑a and Kuei‑lung leap about, and the northwest corner is where the I‑yang lives. In the water is the Kang‑hsiang; on the hills, the Hsin; in the mountains, the K'uei; in the meadows, the P’ang‑huang; and in the marshes, the Wei‑t'o."
Shanhaijing The (c. 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE)
Shanhaijing mentions both and . The 14th chapter of the
Shanhaijing, known as "The Classic of the Great Wilderness: The East" (), describes the mythical
Kui "Awestruck", and says the
Yellow Emperor made a drum from its hide and a drumstick from a bone of (cf. Japanese
Raijin). In the East Sea there is Mount Flowwave, 7000 leagues onto the sea. On its summit there is an animal. Its shape is like that of an ox, it has a bright blue body, and it has no horns, and only one foot. When it comes out of the water and goes back in, there is wind and it rains, and its glare is like that of the sun and the moon, it makes a sound like thunder. Its name is Awestruck. The Yellow Emperor captured Awestruck and made a drum out of its hide. He used a bone from the Thunder beast to hit it with. The sound of the drumming was heard for 500 leagues, and so it made all beneath heaven full of dread. Groot infers that the in "one-legged dragon" Kui, which was "fancied to be amphibious, and to cause wind and rain", "we immediately recognize the
lung or Dragon, China’s god of Water and Rain". Carr interprets this color "as a crocodile-dragon (e.g.,
Jiaolong) with its tail seen as 'one leg'", and cites
Marcel Granet that the Kui's resemblance to a drum "is owing to drumming in music and dancing". The account of Minshan Mountain () in the 5th chapter of the
Shanhaijing, the "Classic of the Central Mountains" describes
kuiniu "huge buffalo" living on two mountains near the source of the
Yangtze River (lit. "long river"). Three hundred leagues further northeast is the mountain called Mount Gem. The Long River rises here and flows northeast to empty into the sea. Excellent turtles are plentiful in the Long River, and there are many alligators. Gold and jade are abundant on the summit, and on the lower slopes are quantities of white jade. The trees on the mountain are mostly plum and pear. Its animals are mostly rhinoceros, elephant, and the huge buffalo. A hundred and fifty leagues further east is a mountain called Mount Lair. The Long River rises here and flows east to empty into the Great Long River. The Long River contains numerous strange snakes and many force-fish. The trees on this mountain are mostly hardwood oak and holmoak, and there are many plum and catalpa trees. Its animals are mostly the huge buffalo, antelope, hoofed hare, and rhinoceros. The
Shanhaijing commentary of
Guo Pu describes as a large yak found in
Shu (present-day
Sichuan).
Liji The (c. 2nd–1st century BCE)
Liji mentions the music master Kui in two chapters. The "Record of Music" explains. "Anciently, Shun made the lute with five strings, and used it in singing the Nan Fang. Khwei was the first who composed (the pieces of) music to be employed by the feudal lords as an expression of (the royal) approbation of them." The "Confucius at Home at Ease" has
Zi-gong ask whether Kui mastered . Ze-kung crossed over the mat and replied, 'Allow me to ask whether even Khwei was ignorant (of the ceremonial usages)?' The Master said, 'Was he not one of the ancients? Yes, he was one of them. To be versed in music, we call being poorly furnished. To be versed in the usages and not versed in music, we call being one-sided. Now Khwei was noted for his acquaintance with music, and not for his acquaintance with ceremonies, and therefore his name has been transmitted with that account of him (which your question implies). But he was one of the men of antiquity'.
Baopuzi Ge Hong's (320 CE) Daoist mentions in an "Inner Chapter" and an "Outer Chapter". "Into Mountains: Over Streams" warns about several demons found in hills and mountains, including with the variant name (or ), "There is another mountain power, this one in the shape of a drum, colored red, and also with only one foot. Its name is Hui." "Breadth of Learning" mentions two music masters, and (from
Qin), "Those who play the lute are many, but it is difficult to match the master of sounds of K'uei and Hsiang." ==Mythic parallels==