Jiang was appointed as general secretary at the fourth plenum of the Thirteenth Central Committee on 24 June 1989 with a fairly small power base inside the party, and thus, very little actual power.
Anne-Marie Brady wrote that "Jiang Zemin was a long time political cadre with a nose for ideological work and its importance. This meeting marked the beginning of a new era in propaganda and political thought work in China." Soon after, the Central Propaganda Department was given more resources and power, "including the power to go in to the propaganda-related work units and cleanse the ranks of those who had been supportive of the democracy movement." In the first few years, Jiang depended on the support of Deng Xiaoping to remain in power, which forced Jiang into an "ultranationalist stance" towards Taiwan and the US. Jiang had supported Deng's calls against "bourgeois liberalization", but while Jiang was seen as a "thoughtful reformer", he "[skewed] to the more conservative views of the elders and his Politburo colleagues". Deng was far more supportive of reforms, saying that "deviating to the Left is an even greater danger" than deviating to the right. Deng grew critical of Jiang's leadership in 1992. During
Deng's southern tour, he subtly suggested that the pace of reform was not fast enough. Jiang grew ever more cautious, and rallied behind Deng's reforms completely. During this time, the involvement of the
Eight Elders in Chinese politics steadily declined. Jiang coined the phrase "
socialist market economy" to move China's centrally-planned socialist economy into essentially a government-regulated
market economy. It was a huge step to take in the realization of Deng's "socialism with Chinese characteristics". At the same time, Jiang elevated many of his supporters from Shanghai to high government positions, after regaining Deng's confidence. He abolished the outdated
Central Advisory Commission in 1992, an advisory body composed of revolutionary party elders. Jiang was appointed as president of China on 27 March 1993; this marked the start of the arrangement in which the paramount leader of China simultaneously serves as Party leader, president and chair of the CMC.
Military After Jiang Zemin took over as Chairman of the Central Military Commission, he faced several crises. The military leaders
Yang Shangkun and
Yang Baibing initially marginalized Jiang Zemin, but after Jiang won the support of Deng Xiaoping, they gradually lost military power. The
Third Taiwan Strait Crisis prompted Jiang Zemin reflect on the mistakes of the
People's Liberation Army (PLA) and leading him to begin building up military power, purchasing Russian naval and air force weapons, while forbidding the
military engaging in business, as well as easing problems with low morale and the near collapse of the military industry. In 1997, Jiang Zemin proposed the
three-step development strategy for modernizing national defense and armed forces in the Realizing the Strategic Goal of Cross-Century Development of National Defense and Military Modernization. China's military expenditure also began to increase rapidly from 1999. During his tenure, Jiang ordered a strict investigation into the issue of espionage leaks to the People's Liberation Army. He investigated and dealt with several major espionage leaks, of which the Liu Guangzhi and
Liu Liankun cases were the most notable. The Liu Guangzhi case was called "the largest espionage case since the founding of the People's Republic of China." The leaked PLA secrets would affect the cross-strait air control competition over the Taiwan Strait and would have adverse consequences on the PLA's combat effectiveness. The Liu Liankun case was directly involved in the leak of information about the PLA's military exercises during the 1996 presidential election and the Taiwan Strait missile crisis. In May 2004, when meeting with representatives of the 10th Party Congress of the Air Force, Jiang Zemin emphasized: "We must unite the officers and soldiers to actively participate in the great practice of military reform with Chinese characteristics, and make new and greater contributions to building a strong modern People's Air Force and safeguarding national air defense security and the unity of the motherland."
Domestic policy Under Jiang's leadership, China established its first controls over the Internet, when in 1996 Premier Li Peng signed a State Council Order issuing the Temporary Regulations Governing Computer Information Networks and the Internet. The regulations stated that all direct connections to the internet must be channeled through international ports established and maintained by the
Ministry of Post and Telecommunications, saying that no group or individual may establish or use any other means to gain internet access. In 1998, the Chinese government started a project to maintain tighter control over the internet in what became known as the
Great Firewall. Jiang Zemin's background in science and engineering prompted him to focus on the development of science and education during his time in office. During his tenure, Jiang proposed the
revitalize the country through science and education strategy. In December 1989, Jiang Zemin pointed out the impact of scientific and technological progress on the development of social productivity at the National Science and Technology Awards Conference, and insisted on giving priority to the development of science and technology. In October 1992, he proposed "establishing the strategic position of giving priority to the development of science and education" at the 14th CCP National Congress and in 1996, he formed the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education. In the following years, the State Council launched the Knowledge Innovation Project, the Technology Innovation Project,
Project 211, and
Project 985. On 21 September 1992, the Politburo Standing Committee chaired by Jiang Zemin formally approved the largest space project in the history of the People's Republic of China: the China Manned Space Program. During the implementation of the project, he visited Beijing Aerospace City, Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center and other places many times to inspect and meet with scientific and technological personnel who participated in the development. He also watched the launch of the Shenzhou III manned test spacecraft on site. After more than ten years of development, China became the third country in the world to master independent manned space capabilities after the Soviet Union/Russia and the United States in 2003. In June 1999, Jiang established an extralegal department, the
610 Office, to
crack down on
Falun Gong. Cook and Lemish state this was because Jiang was worried that the popular new religious movement was "quietly infiltrating the CCP and state apparatus." On 20 July, security forces arrested thousands of Falun Gong organizers they identified as leaders. The persecution that followed was characterized as a nationwide campaign of propaganda, as well as the large-scale arbitrary imprisonment and coercive reeducation of Falun Gong organizers, sometimes resulting in death due to mistreatment in detention.
Economic policy In the early 1990s, post-Tiananmen economic reforms by Vice Premier and later Premier
Zhu Rongji with Jiang's support had stabilized and the country was on a consistent growth trajectory, reaching an annual rate of nearly 10 percent by the late 1990s. Jiang had inherited a complicated trade regime that simultaneously incentivized exports while maintaining protectionist policies, including an unweighted average tariff rate of 43.1 percent in 1992. One of the ways Jiang and Zhu addressed internal inefficiencies was by using China’s long-held goal of joining the
World Trade Organization as political impetus to force domestic reform. Jiang and Zhu initiated major reforms to
state-owned enterprises (SOEs) during their tenure. As part of
grasping the large, letting go of the small strategy, they oversaw a massive administrative restructuring. In 1998 alone, Zhu slashed the central bureaucracy in half and over 11 ministries. In addition to bureaucratic restructuring, China also accepted WTO accession terms that were far more stringent than other developing countries who joined the WTO, including drastically reducing tariffs for manufactured goods and improved legal protections for foreign firms. However, these reforms left a mixed legacy. While accession to the WTO is credited with China’s growth from the sixth largest world economy to the second, economic growth intensified regional imbalances. While the eastern coastal region remained the core of trade development, the central and western regions lagged behind. Jiang's administration worked to reduce geographic disparities by encouraging richer cities to "provide financial, technological, and managerial assistance to the poorer, western ones." Jiang put forward the plan for
China's western development. Construction of various infrastructure projects such as the
Qinghai–Tibet railway and the
Three Gorges Dam began under Jiang's leadership. Jiang launched the
Going Global policy in 1999, a national strategy which sought to develop
national champion firms, increase foreign demand for Chinese goods and services, and secure energy and resources. This policy greatly expanded Chinese investment and influence in the
global South, particularly in Africa and Asia.
Foreign policy Under Jiang's leadership, China continued its style of developmental diplomacy which had been adopted under Deng Xiaoping. China's international behavior was generally both pragmatic and predictable. Nonetheless, Jiang's foreign policy was for the most part passive and non-confrontational. Foreign policy under Jiang inherited from that of Deng Xiaoping, that is, "
hide your strength, bide your time", which emphasized the use of cooperative rhetoric and the avoidance of controversy.
Russia and Central Asia Vladimir Putin at
APEC summit in
Shanghai (2001)Jiang oversaw the deepening of
China's relations with Russia. In 1991, Jiang signed the Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Eastern Section of the Sino-Soviet Border with Soviet leader
Mikhail Gorbachev, and signed the Memorandum of Understanding between the Chinese and Russian Governments on the Mutual Reduction of Armed Forces in Border Areas and Strengthening of Military Trust with Russian president
Boris Yeltsin. On 23 December 1992, Yeltsin made his first official visit to China, where he met with Jiang Zemin and Chinese president
Yang Shangkun. During the 1990s, cooperation between China and Russia was facilitated by the two countries' mutual desires to balance the influence of the United States and establish a multi-polar international system. Jiang also started to meet regularly with Russian president
Boris Yeltsin, who visited Beijing in November 1997, while Jiang visited Moscow in 1998. Relations were further strengthened by the joint opposition to the
NATO intervention in Yugoslavia. In December 1999, during his visit to China, Yeltsin signed the Protocol on the Demarcation of the Eastern and Western Sections of the Sino-Russian Border with Jiang Zemin. In 2001, the two countries established the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) together with
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, and
Uzbekistan in the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). A month later, the close relations between the two countries were formalized with the
Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, a twenty-year strategic and economic treaty. Jiang signed an agreement with Tajikistan in 2002 to cede about 27,000 square kilometers of disputed land in the neighboring Pamir region, allowing Tajikistan to obtain 96.5% of the disputed territory. However, before the signing of the treaty, all the disputed territories were claimed by Tajikistan and actually controlled. After the signing of the treaty, China actually increased its actual controlled land by at least 1,000 square kilometers. In 2004, China and Russia re-demarcated the border, dividing Heixiazi Island into two parts, with the western part returning to China.
Southeast Asia After 1990, Sino-Vietnamese relations returned to normal, the eleven-year border conflict ended, the land border between the two countries was finally demarcated, and the two sides drew a median line in the Beibu Gulf. On 25 December 2000, Jiang Zemin, on behalf of China, signed the Beibu Gulf Delimitation Agreement with Vietnam, formally ceding Fushuizhou Island to Vietnam. At the same time, the China-Vietnam Beibu Gulf Fisheries Cooperation Agreement was also signed.
United States on 11 September 1999 , French President
Jacques Chirac, and Russian President
Vladimir Putin at the
Waldorf Astoria, New York, on 7 September 2000 In July 1993, the United States Navy stopped a Chinese container ship, the
Yinhe, based on the incorrect suspicion that it was carrying chemical weapon precursors bound for Iran. Although China denied the allegation, the United States cut off the
Yinhes GPS, causing it to lose direction and anchor on the high seas for twenty-four days until it acceded to an inspection. The United States sent two carrier groups to the vicinity of Taiwan, and the PRC de-escalated. After the
United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in 1999, Jiang deemed the United States-China bilateral relation too important to be harmed in the emotion of the moment and sought to soothe the Chinese public's outrage. In an emergency Politburo meeting on 8 May 1999, Jiang Zemin instructed the CMC to strengthen the PLA to prevent future attacks on Chinese interests. Among the measures China took to close its lack in leverage with the United States were efforts to develop precision missiles and accelerating plans to expand conventional missile forces. On 1 April 2001, a United States US
EP-3 surveillance aircraft collided mid-air with a Chinese
Shenyang J-8 jet fighter over the South China Sea.
Taiwan On 11 June 1990, Jiang Zemin expressed his views on the speech of Taiwanese president
Lee Teng-hui at the opening ceremony of the National United Front Work Conference. He reiterated that as long as both sides sit down and truly adhere to the principle of "one China" rather than "two Chinas," "one China, one Taiwan," or "one country, two governments," all issues can be raised for discussion and consultation. On 21 November 1990, Taiwan established the
Straits Exchange Foundation, a non-governmental intermediary organization authorized by the Taiwanese government to contact and negotiate with the mainland, to handle cross-strait affairs that the government was inconvenient or unable to handle. Subsequently, the
Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits, the mainland's counterpart, was established on 16 December 1991, and authorized to adhere to the
one-China principle as the basis for exchanges and negotiations between the two associations. From 28 to 30 October 1992, the two associations held preliminary negotiations in Hong Kong and finally reached the "
1992 Consensus" on 16 November. From 27 to 29 April 1993,
Wang Daohan, Chairman of the Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits, and
Koo Chen-fu, Chairman of the Straits Exchange Foundation, held the "Koo-Wang Talks" in Singapore. This had a significant impact on promoting cross-strait negotiations, accelerating cross-strait economic and trade cooperation and various exchanges. On 30 January 1995, Jiang Zemin put forward the "
Eight Points for the Peaceful Reunification Process". However, the Taiwan issue during Jiang Zemin's administration was largely influenced by China-U.S. relations and Taiwan-US relations. During Lee Teng-hui's visit to Cornell University in 1995, he delivered a public speech entitled "What the People Want Is Always in My Heart" at the Olin Lectures at Cornell University. This speech was considered by mainland China to be advocating the two-state theory, which caused the previously friendly cross-strait relations to take a sharp turn for the worse and gradually drift apart, and directly led to the third Taiwan Strait crisis. In November 2002, Jiang Zemin, who was about to step down as General Secretary, proposed the "three things that can be discussed" for the unification of China in his report to the 16th CCP National Congress.
Three Represents On 25 February 2000, Jiang introduced the theory of
Three Represents, which was later enshrined in both Party and State constitutions as an "important thought", following in the footsteps of
Marxism–Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory. the Three Represents justified the incorporation of the new capitalist business class into the party, and changed the founding ideology of the CCP from protecting the interests of the peasantry and workers to that of the "overwhelming majority of the people", a euphemism aimed at placating the growing entrepreneurial class. Conservative critics within the party, such as hardline leftist
Deng Liqun, denounced this as betrayal of "true" communist ideology. == Retirement ==