Early history During the early Islamic period, trade and commerce boomed in northern Qatar. Settlements began to appear on the coast, primarily between the towns of Zubarah and
Umm Al Maa. A village dating back to the early Islamic period was discovered near the town. Between September 1627 and April 1628, a Portuguese naval squadron led by D. Goncalo da Silveira set several neighboring coastal villages ablaze. Zubarah's settlement and growth during this period is attributed to the dislodging of people from these adjacent settlements.
Settlement The origins of Zubarah are the subject of some historical dispute. The 1986 history book ''Qatar's Memorial'' claimed that a functioning, self-governing settlement existed in the area prior to the arrival of the
Bani Utbah tribal confederation. It supported this claim by invoking two purported historical documents; however, they were later exposed as forgeries produced by Qatari authorities amid a
territorial dispute with Bahrain over sovereignty of the site. Upon settling in Freiha, the Utub formed an alliance with local Qatari tribes, most notably the
Al-Maadeed, a powerful clan affiliated with
Bani Khalid, as well as the Al Sulaim. This coalition became known as the Bani Utbah, which later expanded to include other Najdi and
Banu Tamim families. They established Freiha as a fortified coastal hub with access to maritime trade routes and pearling waters. After successive military skirmishes with the dominant Al Musallam tribe, who were a Bani Khalid tribe under nominal
Ottoman support, the Bani Utbah tribes were forced to depart to Iraq in 1716, followed by
Kuwait. In the mid-18th century, likely during the 1760s, Shortly thereafter, Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa of the Al Khalifa family migrated from Kuwait and was invited by the inhabitants of Zubarah, comprising various Bani Utbah tribes such as the Al Bin Ali and Al Jalahimah, to settle in the town. At the time, nearby
Al Huwaila as well as several other northern settlements remained under the authority of the Al Musallam clan. As the Al Khalifa's influence in Zubarah expanded, they faced growing resistance from the Al Musallam leadership, who sought to reassert their authority.
Initial development As the influence of the Al Khalifa branch of the Bani Utbah expanded in Zubarah during the 1760s, tensions with the Al Musallam clan, then acting as local representatives of the Bani Khalid, began to escalate. The Al Musallam demanded tribute from the new arrivals, but Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa refused, prompting a series of skirmishes between the two factions. In response to the growing threat, Al Khalifa initiated the construction of a fortified settlement. Completed by 1768, the structure became known as
Qal'at Murair, a coastal stronghold with defensive walls, watchtowers, and a
canal linking it to the sea. Other defensive installations, including additional forts and towers built by earlier settlers, existed throughout the area. To reinforce his political position, Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa also forged alliances through intermarriage with prominent tribal families, including the Al Bin Ali and Al Bu Kuwara. Following several successive skirmishes over their refusal to pay taxes, the Al Khalifa launched a successful assault on Al Huwaila, leading to the flight of the Al Musallam leadership to
Najd. The town attracted merchants from across the region, developing extensive trade links with India,
Oman, Iraq, and Kuwait. Exports such as dates and pearls passed through its harbor alongside imports of spices and metals. The abolition of trade taxes under the Utub further stimulated commercial activity, drawing traders from other Gulf ports. The town's prosperity further increased after the
Ottoman–Persian War (1775–1776) and the subsequent Persian occupation of
Basra. The disruption of commerce in southern Iraq prompted many Basran merchants and refugees to relocate to Zubarah, contributing to its rapid expansion. Among these new arrivals was the affluent merchant Muhammad ibn Husayn ibn Rizq al-Ruzayqi and his son Ahmad, who played a major role in Zubarah's development. With the support of Khalifa bin Muhammad, who succeeded his father in 1777, the elder bin Rizq constructed a large residential complex that doubled as a commercial hub. Also during the 1770s, merchants and residents from across Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar relocated to Zubarah in response to instability in the Gulf, including recurring attacks and outbreaks of plague. The ongoing conflict between the Bani Khalid and the rising
Wahhabi movement also contributed to Zubarah's emergence as a safe and prosperous alternative. Among those born during this period of expansion was
Thani bin Mohammed, founder of the
House of Thani, who would later become an influential pearl trader. His commercial success earned his tribe, the Al-Maadeed, increased political influence in the town.
1783 Bani Utbah invasion of Bahrain Tensions between Zubarah and Persian-ruled Bahrain escalated in 1782 following an incident on the island of
Sitra. A servant of the Al Khalifa family named Salem had been dispatched to purchase
palm trunk, ropes, and other materials. While there, he and his companions were attacked by local
Shi‘a residents; Salem was killed, several others were wounded, and their belongings were looted. Survivors returned to Zubarah, prompting outrage among its leaders. Sheikh Ahmad bin Muhammad Al Khalifa, angered by the killing of his retainer, sent a formal protest to
Nasr Al-Madhkur, the Persian-appointed ruler of Bahrain and
Bushehr. When Nasr failed to respond seriously, the Al Khalifa used the incident as justification for retaliation. With the support of fellow Utub tribes, they launched an assault on Bahrain on 9 September 1782, plundering and destroying the town of
Manama. A brief land battle ensued between the Arab tribes and Persian defenders, in which both sides suffered casualties. The people of Zubarah returned to the mainland after three days with a seized Persian
gallivat that had been used to collect the annual treaty. On 1 October, the Persian governor of
Shiraz,
Ali Murad Khan, ordered Nasr Al-Madhkur to launch a full-scale counterattack against Zubarah and sent him reinforcements from the Persian mainland. Approximately 2,000 Persian troops were dispatched, and by December 1782, they began preparations for a landing on the Qatari coast. In May 1783, Nasr's fleet arrived off the coast of Qatar and began disembarking at Ras Ushayriq near Zubarah. Due to low tide, the ships were forced to anchor offshore while the army advanced overland. Zubarah was besieged for nearly a month. Mediation efforts by
Rashid bin Matar, the former ruler of
Julfar (present-day
Ras Al Khaimah), led to negotiations in which the Utub offered to return goods and ships previously seized from Persian ports such as
Bandar Rig and from Bahrain. However, Nasr Al-Madhkur rejected the proposal and pressed ahead with his campaign. On a Friday in December 1783, Persian forces landed between Zubarah and Freiha and launched a final assault. They were repelled in a decisive battle by a coalition of local Qatari tribes, which included the Al Maadeed of Freiha. Sheikh Muhammad bin Khalifa, the nephew of Nasr Al-Madhkur, was killed in combat along with many of his soldiers. The Persian army was routed, and its remnants fled the battlefield. Despite the instability surrounding Zubarah after the siege of Zubarah and the conquest of Bahrain in 1783, it flourished as a trading centre and its port grew larger than that of
Qatif's by 1790. Al Zubarah developed into a center of
Islamic education during this century. The first
almanac produced in Qatar, and one of the earliest preserved local literary works in the nation, was produced here in 1790 – the
Zubarah Almanac, authored by the
Maliki Sunni scholar ‘Abd al Rahman al-Zawāwī. This calendar outlined the months and days of the year, specified prayer times, and included observations on agriculture and seasonal variations. The town came under threat from 1780 onward due to the intermittent raids launched by the Wahhabis on the Bani Khalid strongholds in nearby
Al Ahsa. The Wahhabis speculated that the population of Zubarah would conspire against the regime in Al Ahsa with the help of the Bani Khalid. They also believed that its residents practiced teachings contrary to the Wahhabi doctrine and regarded the town as an important gateway to the Persian Gulf. Saudi general Sulaiman ibn Ufaysan led a raid against the town in 1787. In 1792, a massive Wahhabi force conquered Al Ahsa, forcing many refugees to flee to Zubarah. Wahhabi forces besieged Zubarah and several neighboring settlements two years later to punish them for accommodating asylum seekers. An estimate of the population at the height of the town has been calculated to a maximum number of between 6,000 and 9,000 people. Following the attack, the town was abandoned for a short period. However, later archaeological discoveries indicate that the town may have been partially abandoned shortly before the 1811 attack. In one of the first descriptions of the salient towns in Qatar, Major Colebrook described Zubarah as such in 1820: :"
protected by a tower and occupied at present merely for the security of fishermen that frequent it. It has a Khor (creek) with three fathoms water which Buggalahs may enter." Captain George Barnes Brucks gave his account of Zubarah four years later. He stated: In 1868, the Al Khalifa launched a major
naval attack on the eastern portion of Qatar. In the aftermath of this attack, a sovereignty treaty was signed between the
Al Thani and the British, uniting the entire Qatari Peninsula under the leadership of the Al Thani. Nearly all of the authority that the Al Khalifa held in Zubarah was diminished, except for informal treaties they had signed with a few local tribes.
Al Khalifa contention On 16 August 1873, assistant political resident Charles Grant falsely reported that the
Ottomans had sent a contingent of 100 troops under the command of Hossein Effendi from
Qatif to Zubarah. This report angered the Emir of Bahrain, as he had previously signed a treaty with the
Naim tribe residing in Zubarah in which they agreed to be his subjects, and the report implied that the Ottomans were encroaching on his territory. When questioned by the Emir, Grant referred him to political resident Edward Ross. Ross informed the Emir that he believed he had no right to protect tribes residing in Qatar. In September, the Emir reiterated his sovereignty over the town and the Naim tribe. Grant argued that there was no special mention of the Naim or Zubarah in any British treaties signed with Bahrain. A government official agreed with his views and concurred "
that it was desirable that the Chief of Bahrain should, as far as practicable abstain from interfering in complications on the mainland." The Al Khalifa witnessed another opportunity to renew their claim on the town in 1874 after a Bahraini opposition leader named Nasir bin Mubarak moved to Qatar. They believed that Mubarak, with the assistance of
Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani, would attack the Naim living in Zubarah as a prelude to an invasion of Bahrain. As a result, a body of Bahraini reinforcements were sent to Zubarah, much to the disapproval of the British who suggested that the Emir was involving himself in complications. Edward Ross made it apparent that a government council decision advised the Emir that he should not interfere in the affairs of Qatar. However, the Al Khalifa remained in frequent contact with the Naim, drafting 100 tribe members in their army and offering them financial assistance. In September 1878, several Zubarans were involved in an
act of piracy on a passing boat which resulted in the deaths of four people. Political resident Edward Ross demanded that the Ottoman authorities punish the townspeople for the crime, and extended an offer of British naval assistance. He met with
wāli Abdullah Pasha in Basra to finalize the deal. Shortly after the British–Ottoman meeting, Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani and Nasir bin Mubarak attacked Zubarah with a force of 2,000 armed men. By 22 October, Jassim bin Mohammed's army, having sacked the town, surrounded
Murair Fort, which was fortified by 500 members of the Naim tribe. The Naim eventually surrendered to Jassim bin Mohammed's forces on unfavorable terms and most of the Zubarah's residents were relocated to Doha. The incident aggravated the ruler of Bahrain due to his treaty with the Naim tribe. There were reports in 1888 that Jassim intended to restore the city so that it could serve as a base for his son-in-law to attack Bahrain, but he renounced his plans after being warned by the British.
Re-settlement of Al Bin Ali in 1895 At the request of Jassim bin Mohammed, several members of the Al Bin Ali, an Utub tribe, relocated from Bahrain to Zubarah in 1895 after renouncing their allegiance to the Bahraini emir. The Bahraini emir, fearful that Jassim bin Mohammed was preparing to launch an invasion, issued a warning to him and informed the political resident in Bahrain of the dispute. Upon being made aware of the proceedings, the British requested the Ottomans, who had been acting in concert with Jassim bin Mohammed, to abort the settlement. Much to the indignation of the Ottomans, the British sent a naval ship to Zubarah shortly after and seized seven of the Al Bin Ali's boats after the tribe's leader refused to comply with their directive. The Ottoman governor of Zubarah, under the belief that the British were infringing on Ottoman dominion, relayed the events to the
Ottoman Porte, who began assembling a large army near
Qatif. Jassim bin Mohammed also congregated a large number of boats near the coast. Subsequently, the governor of Zubarah declared Bahrain as Ottoman territory and threatened that the Porte would provide military support to Qatari tribes who were preparing to launch a naval invasion. This invoked a harsh reprisal from Britain, who, after issuing a written notice, opened fire on Zubarah's port, destroying 44 dhows. The incursion and subsequent Ottoman retreat prompted Jassim bin Mohammed and his army to surrender on unfavorable terms, in which he was instructed to hoist the Trucial flag at Zubarah. He was also ordered to pay 30,000
rupees.
Abandonment (20th and 21st century) in Zubarah. With its population already depleted, much of the remaining population migrated to other regions in Qatar in the early 20th century due to the inadequate water supply in the town. Qatar's emir,
Abdullah bin Jassim, referred to the Bahraini claim on Zubarah as "imaginary" and "not based on logic". He also alleged that Bahrain assisted the Naim in the form of arms and finances. That year, in the aftermath of the conflict and subsequent out-migration, Abdullah bin Jassim began the construction of
Al Zubara Fort to compensate for the reduced garrison. It was completed in 1938.
Qal'at Murair, the hitherto principal fort of the town, was abandoned soon after Al Zubara Fort was erected. The area was gradually abandoned towards the end of the 20th century and was used primarily for beach camps. == Geography ==