Balinese Hinduism

Prehistory Prior to the introduction of Indian Hindu–Buddhist influences, religion in Bali was shaped by indigenous Austronesian traditions centred on ancestor veneration, animism, and sacred landscapes. These beliefs were not displaced by Hinduism but were incorporated into it, remaining most evident in the Hindu practices of the Bali Aga communities today. This continuity is exemplified at the temple Pura Pucak Penulisan where squatting ancestral statues have been dated to 2,000 years old and have remained sacred across both pre-Hindu and Hindu periods. Indian and early Southeast Asian influence Hindu and Buddhist concepts entered the Indonesian archipelago as early as the first century CE through long-distance trade and cultural exchange. Archeological evidence of Indian trade with Bali has been found at Sembiran village dating to this period. Stories from the Mahabharata have been traced in the Indonesian islands from the first century CE with these versions mirroring those found in Tamil Nadu. Markandeya led an early expedition to Bali with his followers, which was unsuccessful due to a widespread disease outbreak, most likely cholera. Following this setback, he returned to Java. Through spiritual reflection and the application of knowledge associated with Atharva Vedic traditions and Rasa Shastra, Markandeya developed a ritual method of water purification. He subsequently returned to Bali, where he is said to have sanctified the island’s water sources by burying the Panca Dhatu (five sacred metals) at designated locations on Mount Agung and founded temples across the island including the mother temple, Besakih. Majapahit period and consolidation , Java. The Majapahit style heavily influenced Balinese temple design and architecture. The most significant formative period for Balinese Hinduism occurred during and after the decline of the Javanese Majapahit empire in the late 14th and 15th centuries. In 1343 the Majaphit led by Prime Minister Gajah Mada conquered Bali defeating the local ruler at Bedulu. This pivotal invasion transformed Bali into a vassal state, resulting in a significant influx of Javanese Hindu culture, aristocracy, and artistry, which deeply influenced Balinese society, language, and religion for centuries. As Islamic polities rose in Java during the late 15th century, Hindu-Javanese elites, priests, artists, and intellectuals migrated to Bali. They brought court culture, Old Javanese (Kawi) literature, temple architecture, and Brahmanical ritual traditions. As was the case in Java, Budhism in Bali was largely integrated into a dominant Hindu religion. The most significant figure during this period was the priest Dang Hyang Nirartha who is credited with being the most influential reformer of Balinese Hinduism. He was sent to Bali by the Majapahit court in 1492 and founded the Sahivite priesthood that is now ubiquitous. Niratha was an important promoter of the idea of moksha (freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth) and introduced into Balinese temples the padmasana shrine of the empty throne as an altar to the supreme god Acintya or Shiva. The temples on the coasts of Bali were augmented with the padmasana shrines by the dozen during Nirartha's travels. Colonial period During Dutch colonial rule in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Balinese religion was increasingly categorised and studied through European frameworks. Colonial administrators and scholars often described Balinese Hinduism as a "preserved" or "classical" form of Hinduism, a characterisation that obscured its dynamic and adaptive nature. Colonial intervention disrupted royal authority and temple patronage but did not dismantle village-based religious institutions, which remained central to religious continuity. Modern redefinition and Indonesian state recognition Following Indonesian independence, Balinese religious leaders undertook a process of formal reinterpretation to secure official recognition of their religion within the Indonesian state, which requires belief in a supreme deity. This led to the articulation of Ida Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa as the supreme divine principle and the formal naming of the religion as Agama Hindu Dharma. In 1952, the Indonesian Ministry of Religion came under the control of Islamists who severely constrained the acceptable definition of a "religion". To accomplish this, the Balinese initiated a series of student and cultural exchange initiatives between Bali and India to help formulate the core principles behind Balinese Hinduism (Vedas, Upanishad, Puranas, Itihasa). This led to the joint petition of 1958 which demanded the Indonesian government recognize Hindu Dharma. The petition's focus on the "undivided one" was to satisfy the constitutional requirement that Indonesian citizens have a monotheistic belief in one God with Ida Sanghyang Widhi Wasa being identified as the undivided one. In the Balinese language, this term has two meanings: "the Divine ruler of the Universe" and "the Divine Absolute Cosmic Law". This creative phrase met the monotheistic requirement of the Indonesian Ministry of Religion in the former sense, while the latter sense of its meaning preserved the central ideas of dharma in ancient scripts of Hinduism. Bali became the only part of Indonesia to remain predominantly Hindu. ==Key beliefs==

The foundation of Balinese Hinduism rests on three principles: Tattwa (Philosophy), Susila (Ethics), and Acara (Ritual Practice). These principles are inseparable, forming a unified whole. Balinese Hindu philosophy emphasizes the pursuit of ultimate truth, attainable through three means of knowledge (Tri Pramana): Pratyaksa Pramana (direct observation), Anumana Pramana (inference), and Agama Pramana (study of scripture and guidance from trusted teachers). From these arise faith (Sradha), expressed in five essences known as Panca Sradha: • Belief in God (Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa), • Belief in Atman, • Belief in Karma Phala, • Belief in Punarbhawa (reincarnation), and • Belief in Moksha. Supreme reality and divinity Balinese Hinduism recognises a supreme, formless reality known as Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, understood as the ultimate source of existence. This supreme principle is manifested through multiple gods (dewa), each representing specific aspects of cosmic function and natural order. Sang Hyang Widhi has been likened to the concept of the Christian God or Allah in Islam. The major Hindu deities—such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are revered, with Shiva often occupying a particularly prominent role. Divinity is not viewed as distant or abstract but as actively present in the natural world, temples, ancestors, and daily life. Catur Purusa Artha Catur Purusa Artha refers to the four fundamental aims of human life recognised in Balinese Hinduism, adapted from broader Hindu philosophical traditions (puruṣārtha). These aims provide an ethical and spiritual framework guiding individual conduct and social responsibility, and are understood as interdependent rather than sequential. • Dharma – Moral duty and right conduct, encompassing religious obligation, social responsibility, and ethical behaviour. In Balinese Hinduism, dharma is closely linked to communal participation, ritual observance, and the maintenance of harmony. • Artha – Material prosperity and economic well-being, pursued through lawful and socially responsible means. Artha is valued as necessary for sustaining family life, fulfilling ritual obligations, and supporting communal institutions. • Kama – Pleasure, emotional fulfilment, and aesthetic enjoyment, recognised as a legitimate aspect of human life when balanced with dharma. Artistic expression, ritual performance, and family life are key expressions of kama in Balinese culture. • Moksa – Spiritual liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara), achieved through ethical living, ritual purification, and spiritual insight across multiple lifetimes. Karma, rebirth, and liberation Balinese Hinduism shares core Hindu concepts of karma, samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Actions in this life influence one’s future rebirths, shaping both individual destiny and family lineage. Liberation is understood not only as spiritual release but also as the purification of the soul through ethical conduct, ritual observance, and devotion across multiple lifetimes. It emphasises harmony in three interrelated relationships: • Parahyangan - Harmony between humans and the divine • Pawongan - Harmony among humans within society • Palemahan - Harmony between humans and the natural environment This principle underpins religious practice, social organisation, architecture, agriculture, and environmental stewardship in Balinese life. Ethics and social duty Balinese Hindu Ethics or susila emphasize harmonious relationships with others and the universe, grounded in sincerity, sacrifice (yadnya), and compassion. The word susila comes from "Su" (good, harmonious) and "Sila" (conduct).The principal Tat Twam Asi ("He is you") teaches that harming others is harming oneself, while helping others is helping oneself. Ethics are reinforced by Tri Kaya Parisudha—thinking good (manacika), speaking good (wacika), and doing good (kayika). According to Tantrayana, these gods and the associated Balinese mythology assists in personalising the relationship to the divine. "Each individual is likely to find a Dewa or Dewi that they most naturally and closely connect with... through over time that affinity may change." "As personifications, the Dewa-Dewi are ascribed human qualities, some less than admorable." Along with the trimurti, Balinese Hindus worship a range of gods and goddesses (variously referred to as Hyang, Dewata and Batara-Batari), as well as others that are unique and not found in Indian Hinduism. Some of the more revered and recognisables gods and goddesses include: • Dewi Sri – Goddess of rice, fertility, and life-giving abundance; central to subak irrigation rituals and household worship. An indigenous goddess likely pre-dating Hinduism but now aligned with the Indian goddess Lakshmi. • Ganesha (Ganapati) – God of wisdom, thresholds, and the removal of obstacles; commonly found at temples, crossroads, and places of transition. • Bhatara Kala – God of time, destruction, and dangerous liminal forces; prominent in calendrical rites, exorcisms, and rites of passage. • Dewi Durga – Goddess associated with death, transformation, and protective destructive power; especially important in temple and cremation contexts. The pura dalem or death temple is dedicated to her. • Dewi Saraswati – Goddess of knowledge, writing, and learning; ritually central during Saraswati Day in the Balinese calendar. Among deities associated with the natural world, those linked to mountains and lakes are considered the most powerful. The god of Mount Agung, Ida Bhatara Gunung Agung, is honoured at Besakih Temple and in meru shrines throughout the island. Dewi Ulun Danu Batur, the goddess of Lake Batur,is associated with water, fertility, and agricultural prosperity. The sea occupies a contrasting position in Balinese cosmology. It is regarded simultaneously as a source of danger and a powerful agent of purification. Rather than personifying a single sea deity, the Balinese commonly refer to Segara, meaning "the sea" itself, as a potent and impersonal sacred force. == Sacred texts ==

Balinese Hinduism does not rely on a single canonical scripture. Instead, religious knowledge is drawn from a diverse body of Sanskrit-derived Hindu texts, Old Javanese (Kawi) literature, local ritual manuals, and oral tradition. Sacred texts function primarily as guides for rather than as sources of fixed doctrine. Balinese Hinduism utilises palm leaf manuscripts (lontar) to record religious scripture, ritual practice, cosmology, and ethics. The refined technique of engraving words in Balinese script on processed palm-leaves originates from pre-modern India and is still practiced on Bali today. Traditionally, lontar manuscripts were kept and transmitted by Brahmanical and aristocratic elites, religious and ritual specialists, folk healers (balian), and educated commoners. The largest collections are found in Brahmanical households and former royal palaces, but many ordinary families—particularly in northern and eastern Bali—also possess a small number of lontar. One estimate suggests that Bali alone may contain tens of thousands of these manuscripts. Old Javanese literary works play a particularly important role in Balinese Hinduism. Texts such as the kakawin and kidung—poetic compositions based on Indian epics and local mythology—form a central part of religious education, temple performance, and moral instruction. In the modern period, Balinese Hindu institutions have produced standardised interpretations of scripture to align religious teaching with national educational frameworks. == Practices ==

Rituals and ceremonies Ritual life is structured around a complex ceremonial calendar combining the 210-day Pawukon cycle and the lunar Saka calendar. Ceremonies mark temple anniversaries (odalan), agricultural cycles, lifecycle events, and communal purification rites. Major rituals involve the cooperation of extended families, neighbourhood associations (banjar), and temple communities. Offerings and daily devotion offerings|alt=Offerings, known as banten, are a central element of Balinese religious life. They are prepared to give pleasure to both gods and spirits and are believed to generate good karma'' for those involved in their making. Family shrines receive offerings daily, typically in the morning and again in the late afternoon. On important ritual days—such as Kajeng–Keliwon, Tilem, Purnama, the Tumpeks, Galungan, and other festivals—more elaborate offerings are prepared. Offerings in the form of canang sari are usually presented by a female member of the household, who must be dressed in proper Balinese ceremonial attire. They are carried on a tray together with a burning incense stick, and the essence of the offering is gently wafted toward the shrine. Before eating or drinking, many Balinese households prepare coffee with a small sweet and offer it to Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa at the family house temples, accompanied by incense. When rice is first cooked each day, a small portion is set aside on small squares of banana leaf and lightly sprinkled with salt. Commonly numbering between fifteen and twenty, these simple offerings are distributed to key ritual points throughout the family compound, including the kitchen, household shrines, wells or water connections, and entrances or pathways. For major ceremonies and temple festivals, larger offerings (banten gede) are prepared and taken in procession to temples. These elaborate offerings include cooked foods (rice dishes, cakes, fruit, meat), extensive flower arrangements, incense, and ritual objects arranged in complex palm-leaf structures. At certain rites—such as odalan and major calendrical ceremonies—animal sacrifice (most commonly chickens, ducks, or pigs) may be included, prepared according to strict ritual rules. Prayer Daily prayer in Bali is anchored by Tri Sandhya, a formal prayer recited three times a day. It is rarely recited by Balinese daily and is often broadcast over temple loudspeakers, sometimes mistaken by foreigners for the Muslim call to prayer. Tri Sandhya is also recited by students in schools, reinforcing its role as a shared civic and religious practice. The prayer consists of six verses. The theological basis for holy water comes from the Bhagavad Gita where Krishna says, "If one disciplined soul proffers to me with love a leaf, a flower, fruit or water, I accept this offering of love from him." The High Balinese word for water tirtha and Middle Balinese toya are used to distinguish holy water from ordinary water which is called yeh using Low Balinese. Holy water is created by priests every morning by reciting mantras and the use of ritual hand gestures (mudras). Whilst all holy water is considered sacred, some holy water is considered more powerful. Water derived from sacred places or created through the use of more powerful mantras is believed to contain more mystic energy. Holy water used in every day temple worship may not come from as significant a source high in the mountains as what may be required for water used for important rites such as a temple ceremony or cremation. The udeng, worn daily by Balinese men, has defined philosophical meaning. The right fold must be higher than the left, symbolising the supremacy of dharma (righteous conduct) over adharma (unrighteous conduct). The knot is placed at the centre of the forehead, representing the focus and origin of the mind, while the upward edge signifies concentration directed toward the divine. The udeng is also interpreted as embodying the Tri Murti, with its folds symbolically associated with Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Women customarily wear a kamen wrapped tightly around the lower body, a kebaya (fitted blouse) covering the upper body and shoulders, and a selendang (sash) tied at the waist. As with men, the sash carries symbolic meaning, representing self-restraint and the ordering of the body during worship. Hair is typically tied up or neatly arranged, and shoulders and legs must be covered. Musical accompaniment is provided by gamelan ensembles, whose interlocking rhythms structure ritual time and accompany dance and drama. Wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre) has a distinct religious role. Performed by a priest-puppeteer (dalang), it draws on Hindu epics and local myth to communicate cosmological and ethical teachings, and in ritual contexts is believed to possess spiritual and purificatory power. Lifecycle ceremonies Balinese Hinduism places strong emphasis on rites of passage, including birth rituals, tooth-filing (metatah), marriage, and cremation (ngaben). These ceremonies mark transitions in spiritual and social status and are essential for maintaining harmony between the individual, family, ancestors, and the wider community. There are a total of thirteen ceremonies concerned with life from conception until, but not including, death, each of which has four elements: placation of evil spirits, purification with holy water, wafting of the essence, and prayer. These ceremonies mark major events in a person's life, including birth, puberty, grain feeding, and marriage. A newborn baby is believed to represent the soul of an ancestor and is regarded as a god for the first 42 days of its life. However, the mother is regarded as impure and is not allowed to participate in any religious activities during this period. A baby must not touch the impure ground until it is 105 days old, halfway to the celebration of its first birthday according to the 210-day Balinese Pawukon calendar. Once it reaches its first birthday, the child's family will celebrate the Otonan birthday ceremony. Once the child reaches puberty, the six upper canine teeth are filed until they are even. Death rites and cremation The most important ceremonies take place after death and result in the soul being freed to be eventually reincarnated (samsara). Unlike the death rites of other religions, the physical body is not the focus, as it is seen as nothing more than a temporary container of the soul and fit only for expedient disposal. In fact, the body must be burned before the soul can leave it completely. The Balinese cremation ceremony (ngaben) to bring this about can be extremely expensive because an elaborate ceremony is a way of showing respect for a soul destined to become a god with considerable powers over those left behind. Therefore, bodies are sometimes temporarily buried until the family can accumulate enough funds for cremation, although the bodies of priests or high-class families are preserved above ground. Dietary law .''Balinese Hinduism does not prescribe a single, universal dietary code. Dietary practice has historically been shaped by ritual context, social status, and local custom rather than by permanent religious prohibitions comparable to those found in some other traditions. Historically, dietary distinctions existed between caste groups (wangsa), particularly in relation to ritual purity and social etiquette. Higher-status groups, especially Brahmana households, often observed stricter dietary practices, including avoidance of certain meats or foods such as beef or abstaining from alcohol. In the past, Balinese were said to be forbidden from consuming flesh of human, cat, monkey, dog, crocodile, mouse, snake, frog, certain poisonous fish, leech, stinging insect, crow, eagle, owl, or any other bird of prey. Priests and ritual specialists traditionally follow more regulated dietary discipline during consecration, fasting, or purification periods. Such restrictions are situational and temporary, intended to maintain ritual balance rather than moral purity. ==Festivals==

Galungan and Kuningan procession on the eve of Nyepi''|alt= The most important festival is Galungan (related to Deepavali), a celebration of the triumph of dharma over adharma. It is calculated according to the 210-day Balinese Pawukon calendar and takes place on the Wednesday (Buda) of the eleventh week (Dunggulan). According to tradition, the spirits of the dead descend from Heaven, to return ten days later on Kuningan. Nyepi Nyepi, or the Day of Silence, makes the start of the Balinese Saka year and is marked on the first day of the 10th month, Kedasa. It usually falls in March. Other festivals Watugunung, the last day of the Pawukon calendar, is devoted to Saraswati, goddess of learning. Although it is devoted to books, reading is not allowed. The fourth day of the year is called Pagerwesi, meaning "iron fence". It commemorates a battle between good and evil. The Hindu festival of Maha Shivaratri is celebrated by Balinese Hindus as Siwa Ratri. ==Caste system==

Balinese Hinduism has traditionally recognised a system of social classification known as wangsa or varna, shaped by indigenous Balinese social organisation and later Hindu-Javanese influence. While it uses Sanskrit-derived terminology, the Balinese system differs from Indian caste systems in that it has never functioned as a rigid hierarchy based on occupation or ritual purity. Caste affiliation is most visibly expressed through personal names and titles and historically influenced levels of speech in the Balinese language. Inter-caste marriage has long occurred and has never been absolutely prohibited. Balinese Hindu society is commonly described as comprising four broad categories (catur wangsa): • Brahmana - Traditionally associated with priesthood and religious scholarship. Brahmana families historically supplied high priests (pedanda) who officiate major rituals, though priestly authority in contemporary Bali is no longer restricted to hereditary Brahmana lineages. • Satria - Associated with royal houses, nobility, and former ruling elites. Many Balinese kings and aristocratic families belonged to this group, which historically played leading roles in governance and court ritual. • Wesia - A small and less clearly defined category, historically linked to administration and commerce. In practice, Wesya status has had limited social distinction in Bali compared to other categories. • Sudra - The majority of the population, encompassing farmers, artisans, and village-based communities. Unlike in Indian caste systems, Sudra Balinese have always fully participated in temple worship, communal rituals, and religious life. Since the 20th century, caste distinctions in Bali have declined in social and legal importance. Reformist interpretations of Hinduism emphasise vocation and religious practice over inherited status, expanding access to priesthood and diminishing caste as a determinant of social position. Today, caste functions largely as a cultural and historical identity marker within Balinese Hinduism. == Administration ==

Balinese Hinduism is formally regulated and administered through a combination of Indonesian state institutions and Balinese religious and customary authorities. This dual system reflects Indonesia’s constitutional framework for recognised religions alongside Bali’s long-standing system of customary law (adat). At the national level, Balinese Hinduism is recognised as an official religion of Indonesia under the name Agama Hindu Dharma. Oversight is exercised by the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Kementerian Agama), which is responsible for religious education, registration of religious officials, state-recognised ceremonies, and the administration of religious affairs across all recognised faiths. Hindu religious education in public schools and universities, as well as the certification of Hindu teachers and clergy, falls under this ministry. Religious doctrine, ritual standards, and theological interpretation are primarily guided by the Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia (PHDI), the national Hindu council. PHDI serves as the principal representative body for Hindus in Indonesia and plays a central role in defining theology, issuing religious guidance, standardising ritual practice, and representing Hindu interests to the state. It has been instrumental in articulating key concepts such as Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa to meet national requirements for monotheistic belief. At the provincial and local level in Bali, religious life is closely intertwined with customary governance. The Majelis Desa Adat coordinates and oversees desa adat (customary villages), which are responsible for temple management, ritual calendars, community obligations, and the enforcement of customary religious norms. While desa adat operate independently of the state administrative village system (desa dinas), they are formally recognised under Balinese provincial law. Temples (pura) are administered locally by temple councils and village institutions, with ritual authority exercised by priests (pedanda, pemangku) operating within frameworks recognised by both PHDI and local customary bodies. In practice, governance of Balinese Hinduism relies on cooperation between state regulation, religious councils, and customary institutions rather than centralised control. ==Outside Bali and Indonesia==

in Bogor, West Java Balinese Hindus built Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkarta, the second largest temple in Indonesia after Pura Besakih in Bali, dedicated to Hindu Sundanese King Sri Baduga Maharaja Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata Prabu Siliwangi. Pura Aditya Jaya is the largest temple in Indonesian capital Jakarta. At least four Balinese Hindu temples exist in Europe. A padmasana exists in Hamburg, Germany in front of the Museum of Ethnology, Hamburg. Pura Girinatha in Dili, Timor Leste, was built by Indonesian immigrants. The recently constructed Pura Tri Hita Karana is located in Erholungspark Marzahn park in Berlin, Germany. Two temples exist in the Pairi Daiza botanical garden in Belgium. A temple was inaugurated in May 2025 in Kallenkote, Indonesia. ==See also==