Election (656) When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels, the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali. The majority of the Muhajirun, and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time. The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation, publicly took the oath of office. Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali. Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate, also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly, but later broke their oaths. Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge, and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress. At the same time, the supporters, who were in the majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.
Legitimacy Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide. His election, irregular and without a council, faced little public opposition in Medina, but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination. Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali, he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate. Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh. Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership, which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.
Administrative policies minted in
Bishapur during the
caliphate of Ali contains both
Arabic and
Sasanian symbols (image of the crowned
Khosrow II,
holy fire center, and crescent-star,
bismillah in
Arabic on margin). Unlike known historical figures such as
Ibn Zubayr and
Mu'awiya I, there are no coins minted in the names of
Rashidun that could be evidence of
political predominancy Justice The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice. He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance, and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors, whom he considered corrupt. Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad, and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption. Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman. Among them was
Mu'awiya, the long-time governor of the
Levant. Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism, and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency. His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad, and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran, "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise." Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level. For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.
Religious authority As evident from his public speeches, Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority. He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and
Sunna. Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did. They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty () to Ali that transcended politics. For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658. They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali based on his merits, precedent in Islam, his kinship with Muhammad, and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm. Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death, as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.
Fiscal policies Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues. He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims, following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr. In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to Islamic merit, and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption. The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the , and the late immigrants to Iraq. By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman. They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors. Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali, who even withheld public funds from his relatives, whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered monetary gifts. Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds. A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.
Rules of war During the civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting, and instead paid them from the tax revenues. He also pardoned his enemies in victory. Both of these practices were later enshrined in
Islamic law. Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements, and ordered him not to commence hostilities. Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians, killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women. He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested. Before the
Battle of Siffin, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.
Battle of the Camel Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession. She was joined in Mecca by her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr, who thus broke their earlier oaths of allegiance to Ali. This opposition demanded the punishment of Uthman's assassins, and accused Ali of complicity in the assassination. They also called for the removal of Ali from office and for a Qurayshite council to appoint his successor. Their primary goal was likely the removal of Ali, rather than vengeance for Uthman, against whom the triumvirate had stirred up public opinion. The opposition failed to gain enough traction in
Hejaz, and instead captured
Basra in Iraq, killing many there. Ali raised an army from nearby
Kufa, which formed the core of Ali's forces in the coming battles. The two armies soon camped just outside of Basra, both probably numbered around ten thousand men. After three days of failed negotiations, the two sides readied for battle.
Account of the battle The battle took place in December 656. The rebels commenced hostilities, and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named. Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman. Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun, but was pursued and killed. His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause. Ali won the day, and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz. Ali then announced a public pardon, setting free all war prisoners, including Marwan, and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned. Ali then stationed himself in Kufa, which thus became his de facto capital.
Battle of Siffin ; green territory under Ali's control; pink territory under Mu'awiya's control. '' Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of
Greater Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali, who removed him from his post. In turn, Mu'awiya refused to step down and informed Ali through a representative that he would recognize Ali as caliph in exchange for the continued governorship of Syria, and possibly the annexation of Egypt. Ali rejected this proposal. In response, Mu'awiya launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge. Mu'awiya also joined forces with
Amr ibn al-As, a military strategist, who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for the life-long governorship of Egypt. Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with complicity in the regicide, demanding his removal, and a council in Syria thereafter to elect the next caliph. Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext to retain power.
Account of the battle In the summer of 657, Ali's Iraqi army and Mu'awiya's Syrian forces camped at Siffin, west of the
Euphrates River, numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively. Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful. The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail, after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657, until Friday or Saturday morning. Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities, and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion, and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali. Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar ibn Yasir. In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of ().
Call to arbitration Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us." Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now sensed defeat. By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail. Through their representatives, the and the tribesmen of Kufa, the largest bloc in Ali's army, both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call. Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal, most likely against his own judgment.
Arbitration agreement Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution. Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr, whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa. The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657, stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory, adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace. Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement. The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.
Formation of the Kharijites ran parallel to the east bank of the
Tigris Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement. Many of them eventually rejoined Ali, while the rest gathered in the town of
al-Nahrawan. They became known as the
Kharijites (), who later took up arms against Ali in the
Battle of Nahrawan. The Kharijites, many of whom belonged to the , were likely disillusioned with the arbitration process. Their slogan was, "No judgment but that of God," highlighting their rejection of arbitration (by men) in reference to the Quranic verse 49:9. Ali called this slogan a word of truth by which the seceders sought falsehood because he viewed the ruler as indispensable in the conduct of religion.
Arbitration proceedings The two arbitrators met together in
Dumat al-Jandal, perhaps in February 658. There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge. They could not agree on anything else. Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture. Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign. Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya, there was also a second meeting in
Udhruh. The negotiations there also failed, as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya, while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar, who stood down. At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor. The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions, and the common view is that the arbitration failed, or was inconclusive. It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.
Battle of Nahrawan at the Battle of Nahrawan, folio from a manuscript of , late sixteenth or early seventeenth century After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph. Ali then organized a new, much smaller, Syria campaign. But he postponed the expedition, and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army, when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians. They killed many, apparently not even sparing women. Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,5001,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters. The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men. The battle took place either on 17 July 658, or in 657. Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies, many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.
Final years Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign. Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized, or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders, many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya. By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle. At any rate, the secession of so many of the and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali. Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658. Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments, which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen. Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults. He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids. However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the
assassination of Ali. ==Assassination and burial==