Anusvara

In Vedic Sanskrit, the anusvāra () was an allophonic (derived) nasal sound. The exact nature of the sound has been subject to debate. The material in the various ancient phonetic treatises points towards different phonetic interpretations, and these discrepancies have historically been attributed to either differences in the description of the same pronunciation or to dialectal or diachronic variation. In a 2013 reappraisal of the evidence, Cardona concludes that these reflect real dialectal differences. The environments in which the anusvara could arise, however, were well defined. In the earliest Vedic Sanskrit, it was an allophone of /m/ at a morpheme boundary, or of /n/ within morphemes, when it was preceded by a vowel and followed by a fricative (). In later Sanskrit its use expanded to other contexts, first before /r/ under certain conditions, then, in Classical Sanskrit, before and . Later still, Pāṇini gave anusvara as an alternative pronunciation as word-final sandhi, and later treatises also prescribed it at morpheme junctions and within morphemes. In the later written language, the diacritic used to represent anusvara was optionally used to indicate a nasal stop having the same place of articulation as a following plosive, which was written in some evolved scripts (e.g. in Bengali-Assamese) as an additional sandhi letter (no longer as a diacritic) for Vedic transcriptions of Sanskrit, to distinguish it with the anusvara diacritic that was used to transcribe other phonemes. == Languages using the Devanagari script ==

In the Devanagari script, anusvāra is represented with a dot (bindu) above the letter (e.g. मं). In the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST), the corresponding symbol is ṃ (m with an underdot). Some transcriptions render notation of phonetic variants used in some Vedic shakhas with variant transcription (ṁ). In writing Sanskrit, the anusvara is often used as an alternative representation of the nasal stop with the same place of articulation as the following plosive. For example, 'limb (of the body)' may be written with either a conjunct, अङ्ग aṅga, or with an anusvara, अंग aṃga. A variant of the anusvara, the anunāsika or 'chandrabindu', was used more explicitly for nasalized vowels, as in अँश aṃśa for 'portion'. Hindi In Standard Hindi, the anusvāra is traditionally defined as representing a nasal consonant homorganic to a following plosive, in contrast to the (), which indicates vowel nasalization. In practice, however, the two are often used interchangeably. The precise phonetic value of the phoneme, whether it is represented by or , is dependent on the phonological environment. Word-finally, it is realized as nasalization of the preceding vowel: ' , "a well". It results in vowel nasalization also medially between a short vowel and a non-obstruent (' "a youth", ' "a long-handled axe") and, in native words, between a long vowel and a voiceless plosive (' "tooth", ' "a snake", ' "tail"). It is pronounced as a homorganic nasal, with the preceding vowel becoming nasalized allophonically, in the following cases: between a long vowel and a voiced plosive (' "copper", ' "silver"), between a long vowel and a voiceless plosive in loanwords (' "repressed", ' "a bank", ' "cashier"), and between a short vowel and an obstruent (' "to support", '''' "a chest"). The last rule has two sets of exceptions in which the results only in the nasalization of the preceding short vowel. Words from the first set are morphologically derived from words with a long nasalized vowel (' , "to be divided" from ' , "to divide"; ' , "irrigation" from ' , "to irrigate"). In such cases, the vowel is sometimes denasalized (, instead of , ). The second set is composed of a few words like ( , "to arrive" and '''' , "to laugh"). Marathi In Marathi, the anusvāra is pronounced as a nasal that is homorganic to the following consonant (with the same place of articulation). For example, it is pronounced as the dental nasal न् before dental consonants, as the bilabial nasal म् before bilabial consonants, etc. . Unlike in other Indic languages, the same dot designating the anusvāra in Marathi is also used to mark a retension of the inherent vowel (it is inconsistently placed over a consonant after which the short central vowel is to be pronounced and not elided). Nepali In Nepali, the candrabindu indicates vowel nasalization. Therefore, there is a great deal of variation regarding which occurs in any given position. Many words containing anusvara thus have alternative spellings with a chandrabindu instead of the anusvāra and vice versa. Anusvara is used when there is too little space for the chandrabindu. The anusvāra can represent a nasal vowel, a homoorganic nasal, or both. == Other languages using Indic scripts ==

Anusvara is used in other languages using Indic scripts as well, usually to represent suprasegmental phones (such as phonation type or nasalization) or other nasal sounds. Bengali In the Bengali alphabet, the anusvara diacritic () is written as a circle above a slanted line (ং), and represents coda . It is used in the name of the Bengali language বাংলা and has merged in pronunciation with the letter ঙ ungô in Bengali. Although the anusvara is a consonant in Bengali phonology, it is treated in the written system as a diacritic in that it is always directly adjacent to the preceding consonant, even when consonants are spaced apart in titles or banners: বাং-লা-দে-শ baṅ-la-de-ś, not বা-ং-লা-দে-শ ba-ṅ-la-de-ś for বাংলাদেশ Bangladesh. It is never pronounced with the inherent vowel 'ô' ( or ), and it cannot take a vowel sign (instead, the consonant ঙ uṅô is used before vowels). Burmese In the Burmese alphabet, the anusvara ( auk myit (့) ) is represented as a dot under a nasalised final to indicate a creaky tone (with a shortened vowel). Burmese also uses a dot above a letter to indicate the nasalized ending (called "Myanmar Sign Anusvara" in Unicode), called thay thay tin () (ံ) Sinhala In the Sinhala script, the anusvara is not a nonspacing combining mark but a spacing combining mark. It has a circular shape and follows its base letter ( ං). It is called in Sinhala, which means "dot". The anusvara represents at the end of a syllable. It is used in the name of the Sinhala language සිංහල . It has merged in pronunciation with the letter ඞ ṅa in Sinhala. Telugu The Telugu script has full-zero (sunna) ం, half-zero (arasunna) and visarga to convey various shades of nasal sounds. Anusvara is represented as a circle shape after a letter: క - ka and కం - kam. Malayalam In the Malayalam script, the anusvāram (, ) or anusvara (ം) represents the consonant sound after a vowel, though this can assimilate to another consonant. It is defined as a special character that, unlike a normal consonant, is never followed by an inherent vowel. In ISO 15919, the Malayalam anusvara in the final position of a word is transliterated as m, without a dot. Thai The equivalent of the anusvara in the Thai alphabet is the nikkhahit (◌ํ). Used in rendering Sanskrit and Pali texts, it is written as an open circle above the consonant (for example ). Its pronunciation depends on the following sound: if it is a consonant, the nikkhahit is pronounced as a homorganic nasal, and if it is at the end of a word, it is pronounced as a voiced velar nasal . == Anunasika ==

Anunasika ('') is a form of vowel nasalization, often represented by an anusvara. It is a form of open-mouthed nasalization, akin to the nasalization of vowels followed by "n" or "m" in Parisian French. When "n" or "m" follows a vowel, the "n" or "m" becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasal (it is pronounced with the soft palate extended downward to allow part or all of the air to leave through the nostrils). Anunasika is sometimes called a subdot'' because of its IAST representation. In Devanagari and related scripts, the anunasika is represented by the chandrabindu diacritic (example: माँ). In Burmese, the anunasika, called () and represented as , creates the nasalized ending when it is attached as a dot above a letter. The anunasika represents the -m final in Pali. == Unicode ==

Unicode encodes anusvara and anusvara-like characters for a variety of scripts: ==See also==