List of pharaohs

Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records, including ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution regarding their credibility, exactitude, and completeness, many of which were written long after the reigns they report. An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another, and/or selective. Given the lack of sources, it's impossible to fix exact dates for the early dynasties. However, most authors give dates around 3000 BC. According to computations derived from the Turin King List ( 1250 BC), the First Dynasty most likely began 3100 BC, ± 150 years. This appears to be supported by radiocarbon dating studies, which often show earlier dates. However, other authors such as Rolf Krauss have refuted Parker's computations; Krauss instead dates Senusret's accession to 1837/36 BC (7th year in 1831/30 BC). Similarly, the accession Amenhotep I was dated 1550–1515 BC (9th year 1541–1506 BC). Scholars often use the Egyptian "high" chronology, which assumes these astronomical observations were made in a single place (at Memphis). While there is debate on its accuracy, the high chronology used by scholars such as Ian Shaw appears to be closer to the dates implied by radiocarbon dating. Most pharaohs' reigns are not fully documented, leading to many discrepancies in reign lengths. A formal regnal dating system was not adopted until the Middle Kingdom, and the day following a coronation was automatically recorded as "Year 1", meaning that regnal years alone can't be used to calculate exact Julian years. Thus, it is impossible to determine exact dates even when some events can be securely dated. Dates with some certainty can only be given for the New Kingdom onwards, and only dates from the Late period can be securely dated and synchronized with other ancient chronologies. Compare the chronological lists in , , , , , , and . Ancient Egyptian king lists Royal lists after the Fifth Dynasty give only the throne name of each pharaoh, which has often led to confusion in identifying particular kings. The most detailed king lists, the Abydos, Saqqara and Turin canons, date to the New Kingdom, also known as the Ramesside period. Unfortunately, most of these Ramesside lists are of little value for the early dynasties (from which they are separated by over 1000 years), as they feature corrupted names and often disagree with contemporary sources. Complete king lists were certainly made after the 20th dynasty, but they have been lost. The following king lists are known: • Den seal impressions (1st Dynasty, 3000 BC); found on a cylinder seal in Den's tomb. It lists all 1st Dynasty kings from Narmer to Den by their Horus names. • Qa'a seal impressions (1st Dynasty, 2900 BC); found in Qa'a's tomb. It lists all eight kings of the 1st Dynasty by their Horus names. • Tomb of Sekhemkare (5th Dynasty, 2500 BC); records five kings from Khafre to Sahure; the contemporary tomb of Netjerpunesut also includes Djedefre. • Royal Annals of the Old Kingdom (5th Dynasty, 2400 BC); carved on an stele. Recorded the individual years of about 30 kings from Menes to at least Kakai. Broken into small pieces, mostly known for the Palermo Stone. • Tomb of Seshemnefer III (5th Dynasty, 2400 BC); carved onto the walls of Seshemnefer's mastaba tomb. Not an actual king list; it mentions at least 7 kings from Sneferu to Nyuserre Ini. • Giza writing board (6th Dynasty, 2400 BC); painted on gypsum and cedar wood. Records 6 kings of various dynasties. • South Saqqara Stone (6th Dynasty, 2200 BC); carved on a black basalt slab. Recorded the reigns of the first 5 kings of the Sixth Dynasty; it was later reused as a sarcophagus lid and thus almost all of the original text is lost. • Wadi Hammamat king list (12th dynasty, 2000–1800 BC); records five kings of the Fourth Dynasty. • Karnak King List (18th Dynasty, 1450 BC); carved on limestone at the Festival Hall of Thutmose III. Lists 61 kings from Sneferu, but with no apparent order and omitting several names. 39 names have been lost. • Tomb of Amenmose (19th Dynasty, 1280 BC); lists Mentuhotep II and 11 kings from Ahmose I to Seti I. • Abydos King List (19th Dynasty, 1280 BC); carved at the Temple of Seti I. Very detailed, but omitting some kings from the First Intermediate Period and all from the Second Intermediate Period. Records a total of 76 kings from Menes to Seti I. A similar but damaged list is found in the Abydos temple of Ramesses II, Seti's son and successor. • Saqqara Tablet (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC), carved on limestone in a private tomb. Very detailed, lists 68 kings from Anedjib until Ramesses II. • Turin King List (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); written on a papyrus dating to the reign of Ramesses II. Listed every known king with their exact reign length, and divided some of them into groups similar to Manetho's dynasties. The document itself is a sloppy copy of a much more detailed original, which is in turn based on much older sources. The document is today damaged and incomplete, with most of the last sections missing. The papyrus lists 223 kings, but only about of the names have survived. The original likely included further kings until Ramesses II. • Table of Qenhirkhopshef (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); found in the Karnak complex. Lists 17 kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Ramesses II. • Tomb of Khabekhnet (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); lists Mentuhotep II and five kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Amenhotep I alongside other family members. • Ramesseum king list (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses II, lists Menes, Mentuhotep II and most of the New Kingdom pharaohs. • Medinet Habu king list (20th Dynasty, 1150 BC); carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III, very similar to the Ramesseum king list. • Tomb of Inherkhau (20th Dynasty, 1150 BC); records seven kings of the New Kingdom until Ramesses IV alongside other family members. • Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet (22nd Dynasty, 750 BC); carved on a limestone dating to the reign of Shoshenq V, today damaged. Not an actual king list; it mentions at least 18 kings from Mentuhotep II to Psusennes I. Manetho Before the decipherment of Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century, Manetho's Aegyptiaca, written in Greek in the early 3rd century BC, was the sole source for all ancient Egyptian history. Manetho, himself an Egyptian priest, recorded the entirety of his country's history from mythological times until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. He also created the dynastic framework still used by modern scholars, as well as coining the term "dynasty" itself. The original work is now lost and survives only through later epitomes and quotations, chiefly in the writings of Josephus (Contra Apionem, 100 AD), Julius Africanus ( 230 AD), and Eusebius ( 330 AD). These summaries transmit primarily chronological data in the form of regnal lists, though Josephus' quotations show that Manetho originally included detailed narratives, regnal lengths in years and months (rounded as years alone by Africanus and Eusebius), and even alternate royal names. Africanus' epitome, which is preserved by George Syncellus ( 810 AD), is generally regarded as the most reliable, while that of Eusebius is considered more problematic, having been derived from an incomplete and already corrupted source. All surviving transmissions suffer from errors, inconsistencies in regnal totals, variant name spellings, and a failure to account for contemporaneous dynasties—whether due to Manetho himself or to later copyists. Josephus, Africanus, and Eusebius all used independent, and sometimes contradictory, versions of the same work, each copy adding a new layer of typos and corruptions. The content of the Aegyptiaca must be treated with caution. Manetho likely blended historical tradition with mythology, and later Christian authors are known to have altered Manetho's figures, especially for the Second Intermediate period, to accommodate events into the Biblical narrative. Additional distortion arose from the transmission of Egyptian royal names into Greek and from repeated copying over centuries (Greek, like Latin, was written using scriptio continua, with no spaces or punctuation between words). Despite these limitations, Manetho remains a foundational source for Egyptian chronology, provided his data are critically evaluated and corroborated with archaeological and contemporary evidence. Some fragments of Egyptian history are also covered by some Greek historians such a Herodotus ( 450 BC) and Diodorus Siculus ( 50 BC). Number of kings The Turin King List records 207 kings up to the end of Dynasty XVI. In addition, it preserves 16 damaged names that Kim Ryholt associates with the so-called Abydos Dynasty, totaling 223 kings in the preserved papyrus. The original document, however, likely extended until the reign of Ramesses II, just as the Saqqara and Ramesseum king lists. On this basis, the Turin King List probably listed at least 27 additional rulers: nine of Dynasty XVII, fifteen of Dynasty XVIII, and the first three kings of Dynasty XIX, yielding a minimum total of 250 kings. The papyrus also contains several lacunae, explicit gaps marked by the Ramesside scribes when names in their sources were illegible. Ryholt estimates that these lacunae represent at least 12 missing kings: six for Dynasty XIII, and at least six for Dynasty XIV. In addition, there is a lacuna in Column 5.15 that very likely corresponds to Manetho's Dynasty VII, consisting of 10 additional kings recorded only in the Abydos King List. There are also two instances of fictitious kings, both in Dynasty IV (likely Manetho's Bikheris and Thamphthis). Taking this into account, the total rises to at least 227 kings up to the end of Dynasty XVI, 243 up to the end of the Abydos Dynasty, and 270 until Ramesses II. Even these figures likely remain conservative, since a small number of ephemeral or disputed rulers —such as Sneferka or Ba at the end of Dynasty I— were probably omitted altogether. Including the subsequent periods of native and foreign rule, the total of kings reaches more than 300 before the first Persian conquest, which closely aligns with Herodotus' statement that, following Menes, Egypt was ruled by "three hundred and thirty kings, whose names the priests recited from a papyrus roll". For a listing and description of all royal names, from Predynastic to Ptolemaic times, see . == Protodynastic period ==

The Protodynastic period of Egypt spans from the formation of the first Egyptian states about 3300 BC to about 3000 BC, when Egypt was first unified as a single kingdom by the rulers of Upper Egypt. Before this, both Lower and Upper Egypt were divided into several small kingdoms. The terms "Lower Egypt" and "Upper Egypt" are based on the direction of the Nile's flow, which is north. Consequently, "Lower Egypt" is located north (downstream), while "Upper Egypt" is located south (upstream). Lower Egypt Lower Egypt geographically consists of the northern Nile and the Nile delta. The Palermo Stone mentions 14 predynastic pharaohs by their Horus name from Lower Egypt. These may be mythical kings or semi-gods preserved through oral tradition, or posthumous names of earlier pharaohs. The original document likely contained rulers for Upper Egypt as well. Other rulers include: Other potential rulers, most of which have only placeholder names, have also been proposed by Günter Dreyer, == Early Dynastic period (c. 3100–2700 BC) ==

The sole "contemporary" source for early dynastic chronology is the Palermo Stone and its associated fragments. The Turin King List, is not considered reliable for this period, as it often contradicts contemporary sources. The annals are badly damaged, and only a few names are explicitly recorded, leading to several and divergent reconstructions over the decades. Unless otherwise noted, the reconstruction follows . Lastly, it's worth noting that virtually all transliterations are just approximations (Egyptian is an extinct language); certain spellings may change depending on the author. First Dynasty Ancient sources, including Manetho, assign eight rulers to the First Dynasty, a fact confirmed by the records in the necropolis of Qa'a, the last pharaoh. The tombs of all pharaohs, including queen Merneith, are located in the necropolis of Umm El Qa'ab, Abydos. The first two dynasties originated from the lost city of Thinis, and ruled from Memphis according to later traditions. Manetho correctly assigns eight kings to this dynasty, but his order and naming are troublesome. Ramesside king lists, made 1000 years later, identify all eight kings with throne names, but none of them match contemporary records. Throne names were introduced by the fifth king, so the first names must be later additions, possibly posthumous epithets. As noted before, the dynasty must have begun 3100 BC, ± 150 years. The five Ramesside names between Nynetjer and Khasekhemwy cannot be securely correlated with contemporary rulers, leading to much confusion in the correct identification of rulers. The tombs of the first three pharaohs were found in Saqqara, while those of Seth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy were found in Umm El Qa'ab. Proposed dates: 2828–2682 (146 years), 2770–2649 BC (121 years), 2750–2650 BC (100 years), 2890–2686 (204 years), 2730–2590 BC (140 years) Comparison of royal lists == Old Kingdom (c. 2700–2200 BC) ==

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three "golden ages" (Old, Middle, and New Kingdom), interspersed between three periods of fragmentation known as "intermediate periods". The capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was also Memphis. According to radiocarbon dating, the Old Kingdom began sometime around the mid-27th century BC, possibly between 2676 and 2643 BC, but with more certainty between 2691 and 2625 BC. Third Dynasty Ancient sources assign five rulers to the Third Dynasty, but there is uncertainty regarding their exact order and chronology. Both the Turin and Abydos king lists claim that the Third Dynasty was founded by Nebka, hence his position in some modern lists. However, archeological evidence has shown that the founder was in fact Djoser, who is correctly identified as its first king in the Saqqara Tablet. The dynasty ruled 74 years according to the Turin King List, but its numbers do not match with the earlier Palermo Stone; the actual duration may be as low as 50 years. Proposed dates: 2682–2614 BC (68 years), 2649–2575 BC (74 years), 2686–2600 BC (86 years), 2686–2613 BC (73 years), 2592–2544 BC (48 years) Comparison of royal lists: Fourth Dynasty The Fourth Dynasty is renowned for its colossal monuments and pyramids, most notably the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. While the first four kings are well attested, there is some uncertainty regarding the successors of Khafre in later sources. However, the tomb of Sekhemkare, vizier and son of Khafre, records the correct succession from Khafre Sahure. Sekhemkare supposedly lived under five pharaohs, which implies that the latter kings did not reign long. Some tales of this period were recorded by the Greek historian Herodotus, although he notably places it after the New Kingdom period. The exact chronology of this dynasty is disputed, as scholars disagree whether cattle counts were made annually or biennially at this time. The following numbers assume most were annual. Proposed dates: 2614–2479 BC (135 years), 2575–2465 BC (110 years), 2600–2450 BC (150 years), 2613–2494 BC (119 years), 2543–2436 BC (107 years) Comparison of royal lists: Fifth Dynasty Starting with the reign of Neferirkare Kakai, pharaohs became mainly known by two names, a regnal (prenomen) and personal (nomen) name. The pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty onwards are generally known by their nomen alone. All variants of Manetho refer to the Fifth Dynasty as "kings from Elephantine". This is probably a misreading of "Sakhebu", a city near Heliopolis that was likely the hometown of Userkaf. Proposed dates: 2479–2322 BC (157 years), 2465–2323 BC (142 years), 2450–2300 BC (150 years), 2494–2345 BC (149 years), 2435–2306 BC (129 years) Comparison of royal lists Sixth Dynasty By the Fifth Dynasty, the religious institution had established itself as the dominant force in society; a trend of growth in the bureaucracy and the priesthood, and a decline in the pharaoh's power had been established during Neferirkare Kakai's reign. During Djedkare Isesi's rule, officials were endowed with greater authority—evidenced by the opulent private tombs they constructed—eventually leading to the creation of a feudal system in effect. These established trends—decentralization of authority, coupled with growth in bureaucracy—intensified during the three decades of Unas's rule, which also witnessed economic decline. Proposed dates: 2322–2191 BC (131 years), 2323–2150 BC (173 years), 2300–2181 BC (150 years), 2345–2181 BC (164 years), 2305–2118 BC (187 years) Comparison of royal lists According to Africanus, the total sum for the kings of the First through Sixth dynasties amounts to 1497 years, but the actual sum of items gives 1478. Eusebius closely follows Africanus and records 1498 total years, but the actual sum of his numbers is 1504. This may imply that the summation figures are more accurate than the individual reigns. The Turin King List records a total of 52 kings up to Neferirkare, that is, 45 kings from Menes to Merenre Nemtyemsaf II, although the list includes two fictitious kings in the Fourth Dynasty, thus totaling 43 kings. Africanus records a total of 48 kings, while Eusebius records about 70. This discrepancy is the result of a misunderstanding of the text, as later both Eusebius and Africanus record 192 kings before the Twelfth Dynasty. == First Intermediate period (c. 2200–2050 BC) ==

The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II Neferkare, who supposedly reigned up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were probably marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. This was further exacerbated by the 4.2-kiloyear event, a climate shift around 2200 BC which caused widespread desertification and famine. The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After a couple of decades, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based in Heracleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based at Thebes revolted against their Northern overlords and united Upper Egypt. The Theban pharaoh Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of Intef III, defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom. Seventh and Eighth Dynasties Africanus and Eusebius record 70 kings in 70 days, which is clearly an embellishment. The Turin King List records an unbroken line of 18 kings, but almost all names, as well as the sum of regnal years, are damaged. A break between dynasties, while still possible, can't be pinpointed with any certainty. Eleventh Dynasty (Thebes) According to Hornung, the Theban monarchy began no more than 40 years after the fall of the Old Kingdom. Manetho writes: :: The Eleventh Dynasty consisted of sixteen kings of Diospolis, who reigned for 43 years. In succession to these, Ammenemes ruled for 16 years.Here ends the First Book of Manetho. Total for the reigns of 192 kings, 2300 years 70 days. == Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1800 BC) ==

The kings of the 11th Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the kings of the 12th Dynasty ruled from Itjtawy, near Lisht. The periodization of the Middle Kingdom is somewhat disputed; some authors include only the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties, while others include the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties. Egyptian chronology becomes more reliable from this point onward, although dates still differ depending on the author. The reign of Senusret III can securely be dated to the middle of the 19th century BC ( 1850, ± 25 years), thus dating the beginning of the 12th dynasty to the mid 20th century BC ( 1950), and the 11th dynasty to the mid 21st century BC ( 2050 BC). This is supported by radiocarbon dating, which shows that the Middle Kingdom likely began in the range of 2057–2040 BC, with more certainty between 2064 and 2019 BC. The accession of Senusret III is dated to 1884–1860 BC, with more certainty between 1889 and 1836 BC. Eleventh Dynasty cont. The Turin King List records the duration of the whole dynasty as 143 years, starting with Mentuhotep I, and 70 years starting with Mentuhotep II. Proposed dates: 2046–1995 (51 years), 2061–1991 BC (70 years), 2046–1976 BC (70 years), 2055–1985 BC (70 years), 2009–1940 BC (69 years) Twelfth Dynasty Starting from the Twelfth Dynasty, pharaohs often appointed their heirs as co-rulers before their own death. This is one of the main obstacles when reconstructing the chronology of ancient Egypt. According to radiocarbon dating, the dynasty certainly began between the years 2000 and 1950 BC, perhaps around 1980 BC. The Turin King List gives the sum of years as 213, but does not take co-regencies into account. Proposed dates: 1976–1794/3 BC (182/3 years), 1991–1783 (208 years), 1985–1773 (212 years), 1939–1760 BC (179 years) Manethonian royal lists == Second Intermediate period (c. 1800–1550 BC) ==

Reconstructing the chronology of the Second Intermediate period is even more difficult than the First, as there are very few and contradictory records. The Turin King List is the only one to include rulers of this period, but it is badly damaged after the Twelfth Dynasty. This period is best known for the rule of the Fifteenth Dynasty established by the Hyksos people of West Asia. It was a time of political rather than social upheavals. At some point during the weak Thirteenth Dynasty, the provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the Nile Delta, broke away to form Fourteenth Dynasty. Around the same time, the Asiatic people known as the Hyksos established themselves around the Delta, and soon after took control of Avaris (modern Tell el-Dab'a), beginning Fifteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos took over most of Lower Egypt and ended the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties. They were also known as the "Great Hyksos" because of their dominance. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt enabled the Sixteenth Dynasty to declare independence in Thebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, a new native Egyptian house in Thebes set itself up as Seventeenth. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia, starting the New Kingdom. Thirteenth Dynasty As opposed to the previous dynasty, there are little to no historical records regarding this dynasty, with only a few kings leaving archeological records. The dynasty possibly originates from Canaan, as some rulers (Sekhemkare, Hotepibre) are called "Asiatics". Merneferre Ay, while not the final pharaoh, was the last king attested in Lower and Upper Egypt, later pharaohs are only attested in the south. The earlier part of the dynasty until Ay is sometimes considered part of the Middle kingdom, but more often the whole dynasty is considered part of the Second Intermediate period. Manetho records "60 kings of Diospolis for 453 years". Notably, the number of kings appears to be somewhat correct, as the Turin King List records a minimum of 51 kings, which Ryholt rises to 57. However, only the first half of the names survives, and the reign lengths are also damaged. Manetho's total of 453 years is sometimes emended as 153, but there is no definitive proof of this. According to radiocarbon dating, the Thirteenth Dynasty began between the years 1800 and 1740 BC. The document records a minimum of 51 kings (Ryholt raises the number to 56), many of whom ruled alongside Dynasties XIII and XV. They were also of Near Eastern origin. Only four rulers are contemporarily attested: Nehesy, Nebsenre, Merdjefare, and Sekheperenre. Beckerath, who mostly agrees with Ryholt, records 16 additional names of disputed identity. This dynasty notably includes some of the shortest recorded reigns; the shortest being that of Sekheperenre (61–65 days), which is also the shortest reign of a native pharaoh. Proposed dates: unknown– 1645, 1773–1650 (123 years), 1805–1649 (156 years) Fifteenth Dynasty (Hyksos) The "Hyksos", literally meaning "rulers of foreign lands", were people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent and conquered much of Lower Egypt, as well as parts of Middle Egypt. They were excluded from contemporary Egyptian sources because they were perceived as foreign usurpers. The Turin King List records 6 rulers of foreign lands ruling for roughly 150 years, but the list is very damaged and much of the information is now lost. Manetho, as quoted by Josephus, reported six "shepherd kings from Phoenicia" ruling for 254 years (the term "shepherd kings" appears to be the result of pronunciation changes). The following is the tentative reconstruction of Kim Ryholt, based on attested names bearing the title of "Hyksos". Proposed dates: 1648/5–1539/6 BC (109 years), 1650–1550 BC (100 years), 1649–1532 (117 years), unknown– 1530 BC, 1649–1540 (109 years), Reconstructions of Dynasty XV '''Manetho's Dynasties XV to XVII''' The versions of Manetho differ significantly for this period. Eusebius notably places the rulers of Africanus' Dynasty XV to Dynasty XVII, likely to accommodate his Biblical chronology. According to Josephus, the Hyksos domination, that is, the period between Dynasties XV until the end of Dynasty XVII, lasted 511 years, while Africanus attributes 518 years to Dynasty XVI alone. This is likely the summation of all three dynasties, because Josephus' sum of reigns for the Hyksos dynasty is actually 253 years and 10 months. This figure must be a century off, as the Turin King List only notes about 150 years. Sixteenth Dynasty (Thebes) According to Beckerath, the rulers of Dynasty XVI were vassals of the Hyksos. According to Ryholt, the 16th dynasty, ruling from Thebes, consisted of 15 kings recorded in the Turin King List, although most names are lost. Virtually nothing is known about these rulers. Proposed dates: 1640–1532 BC (108 years), 1650–1580 BC (70 years), 1649–1582 BC (67 years) Reconstructions for Dynasty XVI '''Beckerath's Dynasty XVI''' Abydos Dynasty The Turin King List records sixteen names after the Dynasty XVI, but the names do not match those of Dynasty XVII and thus likely refer to a different line. This dynasty is hypothesized by Kim Ryholt to have been a short-lived local line contemporaneous with the other dynasties. The Turin King List ends here, recording a total of 223 kings. According to the reconstructions used here, the original Egyptian annals recorded roughly 243 kings until this point (and 270 up to Ramesses II). The whole section after Dynasty XVI is badly damaged, and thus Ryholt's reconstruction can't be proven with certainty. The total for Dynasty I–XVI thus amounts to 227 kings for a period of millennia. Seventeenth Dynasty (Thebes) The succession of the last three kings of the Seventeenth Dynasty is attested in the Tomb of Khabekhnet and Table of Qenhirkhopshef, but the placement of the previous ruler is problematic. The Karnak King List includes the throne names of Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep, Sobekemsaf I, and Nubkheperre Intef, but they are not in order. These Theban kings ruled an area from Elephantine to Abydos.'''''' They likely began as minor vassals of the Hyksos, as their origins are very obscure. The last kings fought and defeated the Hyksos, and established the New Kingdom of Egypt. Kyholt identified 9 kings of this line, although the exact order is uncertain. Beckerath included 6 additional names belonging to kings that Ryholt placed on the previous dynasties (Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty, Seankhenre Mentuhotepi, Nebiryraw I, Nebiryraw II, Semenre, and Bebiankh). Hornung postulates that the rulers between Dynasties XIII and XVIII ruled for roughly a century. Proposed dates: 1645–1550 BC (95 years), 1640–1550 BC (90 years), 1580–1550 BC (30 years) == New Kingdom (c. 1550–1075 BC) ==

The New Kingdom is considered the greatest period in Egyptian history. It began with the expulsion of the Hyksos, and it saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. The Egyptians expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Three of the best-known pharaohs originate from this period. These are Akhenaten, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance of monotheism, Tutankhamun, known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, and Ramesses II the Great, who attempted to recover the territories in the Levant that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to the Battle of Kadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the Hittite king Muwatalli II. The ensuing Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty is the oldest of its kind. The accession of Ahmose I and the beginning of the New Kingdom can be securely dated to 1550 BC (± 10 years), which is also the date adopted by most scholars. Radiocarbon studies have yielded two intervals for Ahmose's date of accession: 1570–1544 BC Despite being the best-documented period in Egypt's history, almost all of Manetho's names and reign lengths were mixed. His sources were likely already corrupted due to the damnatio memoriae imposed over the Amarna rulers, and co-regency may have caused additional confusion. The period 1540–1292 BC spans 248 years; the sum of estimates reigns amounts to a minimum of 245 years, which closely matches Josephus' sum of 246 years. Nineteenth Dynasty (Ramesside) The Nineteenth Dynasty ruled from approximately 1292 to 1190 BC and includes one of the most famous pharaohs: Ramesses the Great. Manethonian royal lists Here ends the Second Book of Manetho, which records 96 kings, ruling for 2121 years according to Africanus (92 kings in 1121 years according to Eusebius). However, the correct sum of Africanus' dynasties comes to a puzzling 246 kings for 2221 years. The reconstructed chronology for Dynasties XII to XIX shows that about 190 kings ruled for roughly 560 years. Twentieth Dynasty (Ramesside) The Twentieth Dynasty ruled from roughly 1190 to 1077 BC. Shaw dated the dynasty to 1186–1069 BC. For the Twentieth Dynasty, Africanus records 12 kings ruling for 135 years. This actually coincides perfectly with the period between Merneptah (1213 BC) and Ramesses XI (1078 BC). The sum of reigns is roughly 110 years. == Third Intermediate period (c. 1075–664 BC) ==

Following the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Egyptian Empire collapsed and fragmented once more. The rulers of the Twenty-first Dynasty claimed to rule over all of Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt, with the High Priests of Amun ruling over Upper Egypt. The Twenty-second Dynasty maintained control over Egypt for a few decades, but their power soon deteriorated due to infighting. This led to the rise of several competing royal lines in Thebes, Heracleopolis, Hermopolis, Leontopolis, and Tanis, which are collectively known as the Twenty-third Dynasty. Another short-lived line, from Sais, is referred to as the Twenty-fourth Dynasty. The fragmentation of Egypt came to an end with the arrival of the Nubian kings of Kush, who conquered Egypt 745 BC . This was the first time all of Egypt was ruled by foreigners (the Hyksos mostly ruled in Lower Upper), although the Nubians were highly Egyptianized and considered themselves legitimate pharaohs, even reviving the tradition of pyramid building (the last pyramid was built by Ahmose I nearly 800 years before). While not as chaotic as the previous two intermediate periods, the lack of official king lists makes it difficult to reconstruct the exact succession of rulers. The only surviving king list is that of Manetho, which is likely based on a biased source dated to the Kushite period. Note that the sum of items does not match the stated total of years. '''Manetho's Dynasties XXI to XXV''' Twenty-first Dynasty (Tanis) Most scholars date the 21st dynasty to 1070–945 BC; Ian Shaw dates it to 1069–945 BC. The native Egyptian names are given in small italics. High Priests of Amun The High Priests of Amun at Thebes were the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt during the Twenty-first dynasty, writing their names in cartouches, being buried in royal tombs, and passing their office to their sons. They likely did not consider themselves actual pharaohs, but their use of royal titles implied an equivalent level of authority. Dates are taken from Payraudeau (2020), which may not perfectly align with Hornung's. There is insufficient evidence to reconstruct a reliable chronology of these rulers. Twenty-second Dynasty (Libyan) The succession of kings of this dynasty is highly disputed; the following reconstruction is mostly based on Hornung, but dates follow Frédéric Payraudeau (2020). Other scholars date the dynasty 945–715 BC, after Shaw. Despite the political turmoil of this period, this dynasty managed to last for roughly 200 years, being exceeded only by the Eighteenth and the Ptolemaic dynasties. The exact succession of rulers during the period of Dynasties 22 and 23 is highly disputed: Comparison of modern regnal lists Graphic list of the various rival dynasties (c. 880–650 BC) Twenty-third Dynasty (Libyan) The designation "Twenty-Third Dynasty" is applied variously by scholars to branches of the Twenty-Second Dynasty ruling in mostly Upper Egypt (at least intermittently at Thebes), to various local rulers based at Heracleopolis Magna, Hermopolis, Leontopolis, and to a line of kings who succeeded the Twenty-Second Dynasty at Tanis, all of Libyan origin. The following is the most recent reconstruction by Frédéric Payraudeau (2020). There are roughly 20 kings attested around this period, but this may vary significantly depending on the author (compare the lists given above). See also the discussion of David Aston and Karl Jansen-Winkeln. Rulers of Thebes Rulers of Terenouthis Rulers of Heracleopolis Rulers of Hermopolis Rulers of Leontopolis Rulers of Tanis This is the line recognized by Manetho as the legitimate successors of the 22nd dynasty. Twenty-fourth Dynasty (1st Saite) This was a short-lived dynasty located in the western Delta, at Sais. It was actually a vassal of the 25th dynasty. Proposed dates: 740–712 BC (28 years); 736–723 BC (13 years), 727–715 BC (12 years). 727–713 BC (14 years). Twenty-fifth Dynasty (Nubian) Following the collapse of the New Kingdom, the Nubians, a people located around Southern Egypt, founded the Kingdom of Kush. One of its rulers, Piye, invaded Lower Egypt and took the title of pharaoh, although the Nubians already controlled Upper Egypt in the early years of his reign. Kashta, Piye's father, is sometimes also listed as part of the dynasty. The capital during this dynasty was Memphis. Manetho claims that the 25th Dynasty ruled for 40 years, but this is about half of its actual duration. This dynasty is also mentioned by Herodotus, who records "eighteen Ethiopian kings", and by Diodorus Siculus, who writes that "four Ethiopians held the throne, not consecutively but with intervals between, for a little less than thirty-six years in all.":100:44 The accession of Taharqa can be securely dated to 690 BC, marking the first certain year in Egyptian history according to Hornung. Dates follow Payraudeau. Proposed dates: 753–655 BC (98 years), 747–656 BC (91 years), 746–655 BC (91 years); Proto-Saite Dynasty While modern scholars recognize Psamtik I as the founder of the 26th Dynasty, Manetho records four kings before him. They likely correspond to local rulers and Nubian/Assyrian vassals. == Late period (664–332 BC) ==

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty ended after the Assyrian conquest of Egypt. In 671 BC, Memphis, the capital of the first dynasties, was plundered by Esarhaddon, and the sack of Thebes followed a few years later. Despite this, a new dynasty, the Twenty-sixth, managed to restore Egypt's influence in the region and repelled the Assyrians and Babylonians. Still, they all eventually fell to the Achaemenid Persians, who became the Twenty-seventh Dynasty in 525 BC. Persian rule was interrupted by three short-lived dynasties (the 28th, 29th, and 30th) ruling for six decades, between 404 and 342 BC. The first one was founded by Amyrtaeus, and the last one ended with Nectanebo II, the last native ruler of Egypt until the 20th century. The chronology starting from Taharqa, the penultimate Nubian king, can be fixed thanks to the Canon of Kings of Ptolemy, which is itself based on ancient Babylonian sources and fits perfectly with Manetho's reign lengths. The only period with disputed chronology is the restored native Egyptian rule between the 27th and 31st Dynasties; all other dates are fixed. Twenty-sixth Dynasty (Saite) The 26th Dynasty was the last great native Egyptian dynasty and ruled from 664 to 525 BC. Many of these pharaohs are better known by their Hellenized names; native Egyptian names are given in small italics. Twenty-seventh Dynasty (Achaemenid) The first Persian domination lasted from 525 to 404 BC. Native rebels Twenty-eighth Dynasty The Twenty-eighth Dynasty lasted roughly 6 years and consisted of a single pharaoh: Twenty-ninth Dynasty The Twenty-ninth Dynasty ruled from 399/8 to 380 BC: Thirtieth Dynasty The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native Egyptian dynasty and lasted from 380 to 342 BC. Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Achaemenid) The second Persian domination lasted from 342 to 332 BC. Native rebels == Hellenistic period (332–30 BC) ==

The Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt in 332 BC, creating one of the largest empires in history. However, this empire quickly fragmented after his sudden death in 323 BC, which led to the chaotic Wars of the Diadochi. Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, claimed the pharaonic titles and established the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the last and longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt. The former Persian territories were absorbed into the Hellenic Seleucid Empire, which bordered Egypt to the East. Both states would eventually fall to the Roman Republic over the course of the 1st century BC. Thirty-second Dynasty (Argead) The Argeads ruled Egypt from 332 to 305 BC. Like their predecessors, the Hellenistic rulers used the Sa-Ra title (nomen) to display their Egyptized personal names. Thirty-third Dynasty (Ptolemaic) The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemaic, ruled Egypt for nearly 275 years, from 305/4 BC to 30 BC. It was the longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt, followed closely by the Eighteenth. The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, better known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the lover of Julius Caesar and, after his death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them. She strove to create a dynastic and political union with Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Antony doomed their plans. Egypt was ultimately conquered by the Romans under Octavian, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus. All members of the Ptolemaic dynasty shared the same names, but adopted one or several Greek epithets on accession. Regnal numbers are only a modern convention. Native rebels == Roman period ==

(right, 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style. Egypt became a client kingdom of Rome in the reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I ( 107–88 BC) but it was not until the death of Cleopatra (and defeat of Mark Antony) in 30 BC, that Egypt became a Roman province. The Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh by the Egyptians, but the title was not acknowledged outside the province. The last Roman emperor known from a pharaonic titulary is Maximinus Daza ( 310–313 AD). Royal cartouches are attested as late as 340 AD, but the pagan Egyptians chose to posthumously use cartouches of Diocletian ( 284–305 AD) rather than acknowledging the later Christian emperors. This was around the same time that the knowledge and understanding of hieroglyphs began to be forgotten; the last known inscription of its kind, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, dates to the year 394. Roman rule in Egypt continued almost uninterrupted until the 7th century, when the province fell to the Arab conquest, whereafter Egypt was ruled by the successive caliphates. == See also ==