The traditional idea that all were originally quarried at
Chunar, just south of
Varanasi and taken to their sites, before or after carving, "can no longer be confidently asserted", and instead it seems that the columns were carved in two types of stone. Some were of the spotted red and white
sandstone from the region of Mathura, the others of buff-colored fine grained
hard sandstone usually with small black spots quarried in the Chunar near Varanasi. The uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted by craftsmen from the same region. It would therefore seem that stone was transported from Mathura and Chunar to the various sites where the pillars have been found, and there was cut and carved by craftsmen. The pillars have four component parts in two pieces: the three sections of the capitals are made in a single piece, often of a different stone to that of the
monolithic shaft to which they are attached by a large metal
dowel. The shafts are always plain and smooth, circular in cross-section, slightly tapering upwards and always chiselled out of a single piece of stone. There is no distinct base at the bottom of the shaft. The lower parts of the capitals have the shape and appearance of a gently arched bell formed of lotus petals. The abaci are of two types: square and plain and circular and decorated and these are of different proportions. The crowning animals are masterpieces of
Mauryan art, shown either seated or standing, always in the round and chiselled as a single piece with the abaci. Presumably all or most of the other columns that now lack them once had capitals and animals. They are also used to commemorate the events of the Buddha's life. Currently seven animal sculptures from Ashoka pillars survive. These form "the first important group of Indian stone sculpture", though it is thought they derive from an existing tradition of wooden columns topped by animal sculptures in
copper, none of which have survived. It is also possible that some of the stone pillars predate Ashoka's reign.
Origin Western origin There has been much discussion of the extent of influence from
Achaemenid Persia, where the column capitals supporting the roofs at
Persepolis have similarities, and the "rather cold, hieratic style" of the Sarnath
Lion Capital of Ashoka especially shows "obvious Achaemenid and
Sargonid influence". India and the Achaemenid Empire had been in close contact since the
Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, from c. 500 to 330 BC.
Hellenistic influence has also been suggested. In particular the
abaci of some of the pillars (especially the
Rampurva bull, the
Sankissa elephant and the
Allahabad pillar capital) use bands of motifs, like the
bead and reel pattern, the
ovolo, the
flame palmettes,
lotuses, which likely originated from Greek and Near-Eastern arts. Many similar columns crowned by sphinxes were discovered in ancient Greece, as in
Sparta,
Athens or
Spata, and some
were used as funerary steles.
Indian origin Some scholars such as
John Irwin emphasized a reassessment from popular belief of Persian or Greek origin of Ashokan pillars. He makes the argument that Ashokan pillars represent
Dhvaja or standard which Indian soldiers carried with them during battle and it was believed that the destruction of the enemy's dhvaja brought misfortune to their opponents. A relief of Bharhut stupa railing portrays a queenly personage on horseback carrying a
Garudadhvaja. Heliodorus pillar has been called Garudadhvaja, literally Garuda-standard, the pillar dated to 2nd century BC is perhaps the earliest recorded stone pillar which has been declared a dhvaja. Ashokan edicts themselves state that his words should be carved on any stone slab or pillars available indicating that the tradition of carving stone pillars was present the period of Ashoka. , i.e. stone pillars).
Lumbini inscription,
Brahmi script.|alt=
Stylistic argument Though influence from the west is generally accepted, especially the
Persian columns of Achaemenid Persia, there are a number of differences between these and the pillars. Persian columns are built in segments whereas Ashokan pillars are
monoliths, like some much later Roman columns. Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted shaft while the Mauryan pillars are smooth, and Persian pillars serve as supporting structures whereas Ashokan pillars are individual free-standing monuments. There are also other differences in the decoration. Indian historian
Upinder Singh comments on some of the differences and similarities, writing that "If the Ashokan pillars cannot in their entirety be attributed to Persian influence, they must have had an undocumented prehistory within the subcontinent, perhaps a tradition of wooden carving. But the transition from stone to wood was made in one magnificent leap, no doubt spurred by the imperial tastes and ambitions of the Maurya emperors." Whatever the cultural and artistic borrowings from the west, the pillars of Ashoka, together with much of
Mauryan art and architectural prowesses such as the city of
Pataliputra or the
Barabar Caves, remain outstanding in their achievements, and often compare favourably with the rest of the world at that time. Commenting on Mauryan sculpture,
John Marshall once wrote about the "extraordinary precision and accuracy which characterizes all Mauryan works, and which has never, we venture to say, been surpassed even by the finest workmanship on Athenian buildings". ==Complete list of the pillars==