Sources ,
Bihar, ca. 4th century BCE (
Bihar Museum, Arch. 6650). The primary sources for the written records of the Mauryan times are partial records of the lost history of
Megasthenes in Roman texts of several centuries later; and the
Edicts of Ashoka, which were first read in the modern era by
James Prinsep after he had deciphered the
Brahmi and
Kharoshthi scripts in 1838. The
Arthashastra, a work first discovered in the early 20th century, and previously attributed to a Kautilya, who was mistakenly identified with
Chanakya, is now thought to be composed by multiple authors in the first centuries of the
common era, has lost its value as a source for Mauryan times, as it describes post-Mauryan customs.
Chandragupta Maurya The origins of the Maurya Empire are shrouded in legend. Greek sources refer to confrontations between the Greeks and Chandragupta Maurya, but are almost silent on his conquest of the Nanda Empire. Indian sources, on the other hand, only narrate the conquest of the Nanda Empire, and provide no info on what happened at the Greek frontier. A number of Indian accounts, such as the Gupta-era drama
Mudrarakshasa by
Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Mauryas are referred to in the earliest
Buddhist texts,
Mahāparinibbāna Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos". Plutarch states that Chandragupta, as a young man, saw Alexander.
Unrest and warfare in the Punjab 's empire in 326 BCE. The routes taken to South Asia and the return from South Asia to Babylon by land and sea are shown.
Alexander the Great was leading his Indian campaigns and ventured into Punjab. His army mutinied at the
Beas River and refused to advance farther eastward when confronted by another army. Alexander returned to
Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the
Indus River. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented into independent kingdoms ruled by his generals. The Roman historian
Justin (2nd c. CE) states, in
Epit. 15.4.12-13, that after Alexander's death, Greek governors in India were assassinated, liberating the people of Greek rule. This revolt was led by Chandragupta, who in turn established an oppressive regime himself "after taking the throne": Raychaudhuri states that, according to Justin
Epitome 15.4.18–19, Chandragupta organised an army. He notes that early translators interpreted Justin's original expression as "body of robbers", but states Raychaudhuri, the original expression used by Justin may mean mercenary soldier, hunter, or robber. Mookerji refers to McCrindle as stating that "robbers" refers to the people of the Punjab, "kingless people." Mookerju further quotes Rhys Davids, who states that "it was from the Punjab that Chandragupta recruited the nucleus of the force with which he besieged and conquered Dhana-Nanda." According to Nath Sen, Chandragupta recruited and annexed local
military republics such as the
Yaudheyas that had resisted Alexander's Empire. When Alexander's remaining forces were routed, returning westwards, Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these territories. Not many details of the campaigns are known from ancient sources. Seleucus was defeated and retreated into the mountainous region of Afghanistan.
Conquest of the Nanda Empire , capital of the Mauryas. Ruins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site. , discovered at the
Bulandi Bagh site of Pataliputra, 4th–3rd c. BCE. The
Nanda Empire ruled the Ganges basin and some adjacent territories. The Nanda Empire was a large, militaristic, and economically powerful empire due to conquering the
mahajanapadas. Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign against the
Nanda Empire are unavailable, and legends written centuries later are inconsistent. Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts claim
Magadha was ruled by the
Nanda dynasty, which was defeated and conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, with
Chanakya's counsel. The conquest was fictionalised in the Gupta-era play
Mudrarakshasa, which embellished the legend with further narratives not found in earlier versions of the Chanakya-Chandragupta legend. Because of this difference,
Thomas Trautmann suggests that most of it is fictional or legendary, without any historical basis.
Radha Kumud Mukherjee similarly considers Mudrakshasa play without historical basis. Justin reports that Chandragupta met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape. According to several Indian legends, Chanakya travelled to
Pataliputra,
Magadha, the capital of the Nanda Empire where Chanakya worked for the Nandas as a
minister. However, Chanakya was insulted by the King
Dhana Nanda when he informed them of Alexander's invasion. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire. He had to flee in order to save his life and went to
Taxila, a notable center of learning, to work as a teacher. On one of his travels, Chanakya witnessed some young men playing a rural game practising a pitched battle near
Vinjha forest. One of the boys was none other than Chandragupta. Chanakya was impressed by the young Chandragupta and saw imperial qualities in him as someone fit to rule. The Buddhist
Mahavamsa Tika and Jain
Parishishtaparvan records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital. He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There
Dhana Nanda accepted defeat. In contrast to the easy victory in Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army. These legends state that the Nanda emperor was defeated, deposed and exiled by some accounts, while Buddhist accounts claim he was killed. With the defeat of Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire. Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign into Pataliputra are unavailable and the legends written centuries later are inconsistent. While his victory, and ascencion of the throne, is usually dated at ca. 322-319 BCE, which would put his war in the Punjab after his ascencion, an ascencion "between c.311 and c.305 bc" is also possible, placing his activity in the Punjab at ca. 317 BCE, "at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory":
Dynastic marriage-alliance with Seleucus Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian
satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus. In 303-302 BCE a
confrontation took place between Chandragupta and
Seleucus I Nicator, when Seleucus crossed the Indus with an army.
Appian|
History of Rome, The Syrian Wars: "He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. Possibly without entering into a real battle, the two rulers concluded a dynastic marriage alliance in ca. 302 BCE. According to Kosmin, "Seleucus transferred to Chandragupta's kingdom the easternmost satrapies of his empire, certainly
Gandhara,
Parapamisadae, and the eastern parts of
Gedrosia, and possibly also
Arachosia and Aria as far as Herat." Seleucus I received 500
war elephants, that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western
Hellenistic kings at the
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,
Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later
Deimakos to his son
Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at
Pataliputra (modern
Patna in
Bihar). Later,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of
Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of
Ashoka, is also recorded by
Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named
Dionysius to the Mauryan court. Megasthenes in particular was a notable Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book
Indika is a major literary source for information about the Mauryan Empire. According to
Arrian, ambassador Megasthenes (c. 350 – c. 290 BCE) lived in Arachosia and travelled to
Pataliputra. Megasthenes' description of Mauryan society as freedom-loving gave Seleucus a means to avoid invasion, however, underlying Seleucus' decision was the improbability of success. In later years, Seleucus' successors maintained diplomatic relations with the Empire based on similar accounts from returning travellers. Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various
aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:
Chandragupta's state According to
Plutarch, Chandragupta Maurya subdued all of India, and Justin also observed that Chandragupta Maurya was "in possession of India". These accounts are corroborated by Tamil Sangam literature which mentions about Mauryan invasion with their south Indian allies and defeat of their rivals at Podiyil hill in
Tirunelveli district in present-day
Tamil Nadu. Chandragupta's established a dynasty which ruled over a territory which can be described as a network of core cities and regios, connected by communication and trade routes, surrounded by areas (autonomous tribes; forests and (Thar-)desert) with little connection to this network. The span of control was relative, with three very different spheres, the metropolitan state, the core areas of previously established Janapadas and Mahajanapadas and, finally, the peripheral regions of "lineage-based societies" which "would be relatively liberated from the control of the metropolitan state." The core region consisted of Magadha "and some of the adjacent old mahajanapadas," and only this part was under the direct administration of the emperor." Pataliputra was the capital, which was, according to Megasthenes, "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers."
Aelian, although not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentioning Pataliputra, described Indian palaces as superior in splendor to
Persia's
Susa or
Ecbatana. The architecture of the city seems to have had many similarities with Persian cities of the period.
Bindusara . Bindusara was born to
Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire. This is attested by several sources, including the various
Puranas and the
Mahāvaṃsa. He is attested by the Buddhist texts such as
Dīpavaṃsa and
Mahāvaṃsa ("Bindusaro"); the Jain texts such as
Parishishta-Parvan; as well as the Hindu texts such as
Vishnu Purana ("Vindusara"). According to the 12th century Jain writer
Hemachandra's
Parishishta-Parvan, the name of Bindusara's mother was
Durdhara. Some Greek sources also mention him by the name "Amitrochates" or its variations. Historian
Upinder Singh estimates that Bindusara ascended the throne around 297 BCE. Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and
Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as
Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' – the peninsular region between the
Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea). Bindusara did not conquer the friendly
Tamil kingdoms of the
Cholas, ruled by King
Ilamcetcenni, the
Pandyas, and
Cheras. Apart from these southern states,
Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that did not form part of Bindusara's empire. It was later conquered by his son
Ashoka, who served as the
Viceroy of
Avantirastra during his father's reign, which highlights the importance of the province. Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans". During his rule, the citizens of
Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of
Susima, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death. Chandragupta's son
Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. The famous
Tamil poet
Mamulanar of the
Sangam literature described how areas south of the
Deccan Plateau which comprised
Tamilakam was invaded by the Mauryan Army using troops from Karnataka. Mamulanar states that
Vadugar (people who resided in Andhra-Karnataka regions immediately to the north of Tamil Nadu) formed the vanguard of the Mauryan Army. According to Sailendra Nath Sen, this appears to have happened during Bindusara's reign. His son
Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged presents with
Antiochus I: Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage converted to
Jainism), Bindusara believed in the
Ajivika religion. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin of the Ajivika religion. Bindusara's wife, Empress
Subhadrangi was a
Brahmin also of the Ajivika religion from
Champa (present
Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (
Brahmana-bhatto). Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in the 270s BCE. According to Upinder Singh, Bindusara died around 273 BCE.
Alain Daniélou believes that he died around 274 BCE. Sailendra Nath Sen believes that he died around 273–272 BCE, and that his death was followed by a four-year struggle of succession, after which his son
Ashoka became the emperor in 269–268 BCE. According to the
Mahāvaṃsa, Bindusara reigned for 28 years. The
Vayu Purana, which names Chandragupta's successor as "Bhadrasara", states that he ruled for 25 years.
Ashoka at
Sarnath. c. 250 BCE. . (238 BCE), in
Brahmi, sandstone,
British Museum. As a young prince, Ashoka ( BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As emperor he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of
Kalinga (262–261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Ashoka used Kalinga to project power over a large region by building a fortification there and securing it as a possession. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and citizen militias, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Imperial Mauryan soldiers. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries. He also propagated his own
dhamma. Ashoka implemented principles of
ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and abolishing
slave trade. While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealised figure of inspiration in modern India. The
Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (
Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in
Greek, and one in both Greek and
Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks,
Kambojas, and
Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the
Hellenistic world at the time such as
Amtiyoko (
Antiochus II Theos),
Tulamaya (
Ptolemy II),
Amtikini (
Antigonos II),
Maka (
Magas) and
Alikasudaro (
Alexander II of Epirus) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (1 yojana being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).
Subhagasena (206 BCE) Sophagasenus was an Indian
Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagasena or Subhashasena in
Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of
Ashoka, or
Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the
Hindu Kush, possibly in
Gandhara.
Antiochos III, the
Seleucid king, after having made peace with
Euthydemus in
Bactria, went to India in 206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:
Decline , 3rd century BCE. This is a probable member of the West Asian
Pahlava or
Saka elite in the
Gangetic plains during the Mauryan period. Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker emperors. He was succeeded by
Dasharatha Maurya, who was Ashoka's grandson. None of Ashoka's sons could ascend to the throne after him.
Mahinda, his firstborn, became a Buddhist monk.
Kunala Maurya was blinded and hence couldn't ascend to the throne; and
Tivala, son of
Karuvaki, died even earlier than Ashoka. Little is known about another son,
Jalauka. The empire lost many territories under Dasharatha, which were later reconquered by
Samprati, Kunala's son. Post Samprati, the Mauryas slowly lost many territories. In 180 BCE,
Brihadratha Maurya, was killed by his
general,
Pushyamitra Shunga in a military parade without any heir, giving rise to the
Shunga Empire. Reasons advanced for the decline include the succession of weak emperors after Ashoka Maurya, the partition of the empire into two, the growing independence of some areas within the empire, such as that ruled by
Sophagasenus, a top-heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons, an absence of any national consciousness, the pure scale of the empire making it unwieldy, and invasion by the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Some historians, such as
Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri, have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire. Others, such as
Romila Thapar, have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated".
Persecution of Buddhists Buddhist records such as the
Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga empire led to a wave of religious persecution for
Buddhists, and a resurgence of
Brahmanism. According to
Sir John Marshall, Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as
Etienne Lamotte and
Romila Thapar, among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.
Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE) , the Maurya Empire and the
Yuezhi (Kushans) The fall of the Mauryas left the
Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The
Greco-Bactrian king
Demetrius capitalised on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the
Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings,
Menander, became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of
Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the
Shungas,
Satavahanas, and
Kalinga are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, named
Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of
Mathura, and Gujarat. == Military ==