From classical antiquity to modern excavation For many centuries, European knowledge of Mesopotamia was largely confined to often dubious
classical sources, as well as
biblical writings. From the Middle Ages onward, there were scattered reports of ancient Mesopotamian ruins. As early as the 12th century, the ruins of
Nineveh were correctly identified by
Benjamin of Tudela, also known as Benjamin Son of Jonah, a
rabbi from Navarre, who visited the Jews of
Mosul and the ruins of Assyria during his travels throughout the Middle East. The identification of the city of
Babylon was made in 1616 by
Pietro Della Valle. Pietro gave "remarkable descriptions" of the site, and brought back to Europe inscribed bricks that he had found at Nineveh and
Ur.
18th century and birth Between 1761 and 1767,
Carsten Niebuhr, a
Danish mathematician, made copies of cuneiform inscriptions at
Persepolis in
Persia as well as sketches and drawing of Nineveh, and was shortly followed by
André Michaux, a French botanist and explorer, who sold the French Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris an inscribed boundary stone found near Baghdad. The first known archeological excavation in Mesopotamia was led by
Abbé Beauchamp, papal vicar general at
Baghdad, excavating the sculpture now generally known as the "
Lion of Babylon." Abbé Beauchamp's memoirs of his travels, published in 1790, sparked a sensation in the scholarly world, generating a number of archeological and academic expeditions to the Middle East. In 1811,
Claudius James Rich, an Englishman and a resident for the
East India Company in Baghdad, began examining and mapping the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, and collecting numerous inscribed bricks, tablets, boundary stones, and cylinders, including the famous Nebuchadnezzar Cylinder and Sennacherib Cylinder, a collection which formed the nucleus of the Mesopotamian antiquities collection at the British Museum.
Decipherment of cuneiform One of the largest obstacles scholars had to overcome during the early days of Assyriology was the decipherment of curious triangular markings on many of the artifacts and ruins found at Mesopotamian sites. These markings, which were termed "
cuneiform" by
Thomas Hyde in 1700, were long considered to be merely decorations and ornaments. It was not until late in the 18th century that they came to be considered some sort of writing. In 1778
Carsten Niebuhr, the Danish mathematician, published accurate copies of three trilingual inscriptions from the ruins at
Persepolis. Niebuhr showed that the inscriptions were written from left to right, and that each of the three inscriptions contained three different types of cuneiform writing, which he labelled Class I, Class II, and Class III (now known to be
Old Persian,
Akkadian, and
Elamite). Class I was determined to be alphabetic and consisting of 44 characters, and was written in
Old Persian. It was first deciphered by
Georg Friedrich Grotefend (based on work of
Friedrich Munter) and
Henry Creswicke Rawlinson between 1802 and 1848. Class II proved more difficult to translate. In 1850,
Edward Hincks published a paper showing that the Class II was not alphabetical, but was in fact both syllabic and ideographic, which led to its translation between 1850 and 1859. The language was at first called Babylonian and/or Assyrian, but has now come to be known as
Akkadian. From 1850 onwards, there was a growing suspicion that the Semite inhabitants of Babylon and Assyria were not the inventors of cuneiform system of writing, and that they had instead borrowed it from some other language and culture. In 1850, Edward Hincks published a paper suggesting that cuneiform was instead invented by some non-Semitic people who had preceded the Semites in Babylon. In 1853, Rawlinson came to similar conclusions, and texts written in this more ancient language were identified. At first, this language was called "Akkadian" or "Scythian" but it is now known to be
Sumerian. This was the first indication to modern scholarship that this older culture and people, the Sumerians, existed at all.
Systematic excavation Systematic excavation of Mesopotamian antiquities was begun in earnest in 1842, with
Paul-Émile Botta, the French consul at Mosul. The excavations of
P.E. Botta at Khorsabad and
Austen H. Layard (from 1845) at
Nimrud and
Nineveh, as well as the successful
decipherment of the
cuneiform system of writing opened up a new world. Layard's discovery of the library of
Ashurbanipal put the materials for reconstructing the ancient life and history of
Assyria and
Babylonia into the hands of scholars. He was the first to excavate in Babylonia, where
C.J. Rich had already done useful topographical work. Layard's excavations in this latter country were continued by
W.K. Loftus, who also opened trenches at
Susa, as well as by
Julius Oppert on behalf of the French government. But it was only in the last quarter of the 19th century that anything like systematic exploration was attempted. After the death of
George Smith at
Aleppo in 1876, an expedition was sent by the
British Museum (1877–1879), under the conduct of
Hormuzd Rassam, to continue his work at Nineveh and its neighbourhood. Excavations in the mounds of Balaw~t, called Imgur-Bel by the Assyrians, 15 miles east of
Mosul, resulted in the discovery of a small temple dedicated to the god of dreams by
Ashurnasirpal II (883 BC), containing a stone
coffer or ark in which were two inscribed tables of
alabaster of rectangular shape, as well as of a palace which had been destroyed by the Babylonians but restored by
Shalmaneser III (858 BC). From the latter came the bronze gates with hammered reliefs, which are now in the British Museum. The remains of a palace of
Ashurbanipal at
Nimrud (Calah) were also excavated, and hundreds of enamelled tiles were disinterred. Two years later (1880–1881) Rassam was sent to Babylonia, where he discovered the site of the temple of the sun-god of
Sippara at Abu-Habba, and so fixed the position of the two Sipparas or Sepharvaim. Abu-Habba lies south-west of
Baghdad, midway between the
Euphrates and
Tigris, on the south side of a canal, which may once have represented the main stream of the Euphrates, Sippara of the goddess Anunit, now Dir, being on its opposite bank. Meanwhile, from 1877 to 1881, the French consul
Ernest de Sarzec had been excavating at
Telloh, ancient Girsu, and bringing to light monuments of the pre-Semitic age; these included the
diorite statues of Gudea now in the
Louvre, the stone of which, according to the inscriptions upon them, had been brought from
Magan in the
Sinai Peninsula. The subsequent excavations of de Sarzec in Telloh and its neighbourhood carried the history of the city back to at least 4000 BC. A collection of more than 30,000 tablets has been found, which were arranged on shelves in the time of Gudea (). In 1886–1887 a German expedition under
Robert Koldewey explored the cemetery of El Hiba (immediately to the south of Telloh), and for the first time made us acquainted with the burial customs of ancient Babylonia. Another German expedition, on a large scale, was despatched by the
Orientgesellschaft in 1899 with the object of exploring the ruins of Babylon; the palace of
Nebuchadrezzar and the great processional road were laid bare, and W. Andrae subsequently conducted excavations at Qal'at Sherqat, the site of
Assur. Even the Turkish government has not held aloof from the work of exploration, and the Museum at
Istanbul is filled with the tablets discovered by
V. Scheil in 1897 on the site of Sippara.
Jacques de Morgan's exceptionally important work at
Susa lies outside the limits of Babylonia. Not so, the American excavations (1903–1904) under EJ Banks at
Bismaya (Ijdab), and those of the
University of Pennsylvania at
Nippur between 1889 and 1900, where Mr JH Haynes has systematically and patiently uncovered the remains of the great temple of
El-lil, removing layer after layer of debris and cutting sections in the ruins down to the virgin soil. Midway in the mound is a platform of large bricks stamped with the names of
Sargon of Akkad and his son, Naram-Sin (2300 BC). As the debris above them is 34 feet thick, the topmost stratum being not later than the
Parthian era (HV Hilprecht,
The Babylonian Expedition, p. 23), it is calculated that the debris underneath the pavement, 30 feet thick, must represent a period of about 3000 years, more especially as older constructions had to be leveled before the pavement was laid. In the deepest part of the excavations, inscribed clay tablets and fragments of stone vases are still found, though the cuneiform characters upon them are of a very archaic type, and sometimes even retain their primitive pictorial forms.
Digital Assyriology also known as
Digital Ancient Near Eastern Studies (DANES). Analogous to the development of the
digital humanities and accompanying the
digitization of the subject, computer-based methods are being developed jointly with computer science, the roots of which can be found in the late 1960s in the work of Gerhard Sperl. In 2023, an open data set was published and used to train an
artificial intelligence enabling the recognition of cuneiform signs in photographs and 3D-models. == Important publications ==