Barley

at Cressing, Essex, built around 1220; its name means "barley barley-store". This survives in the north of Scotland as bere; it is used for a strain of six-row barley grown there. Modern English barley derives from the Old English adjective bærlic, meaning "of barley". The word barn derives from Old English bere-aern meaning "barley-store". == Description ==

Barley is a cereal, a member of the grass family with edible grains. Its flowers are clusters of spikelets arranged in a distinctive herringbone pattern. Each spikelet has a long thin awn (to long), making the ears look tufted. The spikelets are in clusters of three. In six-row barley, all three spikelets in each cluster are fertile; in two-row barley, only the central one is fertile. It is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The genome is organised into seven pairs Details of the genome are freely available in several barley databases. == Origin ==

External phylogeny The barley genus Hordeum is relatively closely related to wheat and rye within the Triticeae, and more distantly to rice within the BOP clade of grasses (Poaceae). The phylogeny of the Triticeae is complicated by hybridization between species, so there is a network of relationships rather than a simple inheritance-based tree. }} Domestication in the west to Tibet in the east. A study of genome-wide diversity markers found Tibet to be an additional center of domestication of cultivated barley. The earliest archaeological evidence of the consumption of wild barley, Hordeum spontaneum, comes from the Epipaleolithic at Ohalo II at the southern end of the Sea of Galilee, where grinding stones with traces of starch were found. The remains were dated to about 23,000 BC. The earliest evidence for the domestication of barley, in the form of cultivars that cannot reproduce without human assistance, comes from Mesopotamia, specifically the Jarmo region of modern-day Iraq, around 9,000–7,000 BC.), "barley". The practice was to dry the barley groats and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to Pliny the Elder's Natural History. Tibetan barley has been a staple food in Tibetan cuisine since the fifth century AD. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies. It is made into a flour product called tsampa that is still a staple in Tibet. In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes. == Taxonomy and varieties ==

Two-row and six-row barley Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley (and other Old World species of Hordeum), only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominant, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Brewers in Europe tend to use two-row cultivars and breweries in North America use six-row barley (or a mix), and there are important differences in enzyme content, kernel shape, and other factors that malters and brewers must take into consideration. In traditional taxonomy, different forms of barley were classified as different species based on morphological differences. Two-row barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) was named Hordeum spontaneum. Two-row barley with nonshattering spikes was named as H. distichon, six-row barley with nonshattering spikes as H. vulgare (or H. hexastichum), and six-row with shattering spikes as H. agriocrithon. Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with cytological and molecular evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a single species, H. vulgare. Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, bran, and flour. Hulless barley can offer higher protein, increased beta-glucan content, and more efficient handling and processing because of the lack of hull. == Production ==

In 2024, world production of barley was 142 million tonnes, led by Russia with 12% of the total (table). Australia, Germany, and France were secondary producers. Worldwide barley production in 2023 was fourth among grains, following maize (1.2 billion tonnes), rice (800 million tonnes), and wheat (799 million tonnes). == Cultivation ==

Barley is a crop that prefers relatively low temperatures, in the growing season; it is grown around the world in temperate areas. It grows best in well-drained soil in full sunshine. In the tropics and subtropics, it is grown for food and straw in South Asia, North and East Africa, and in the Andes of South America. In dry regions it requires irrigation. Barley is more tolerant of soil salinity than other cereals, varying in different cultivars. It has less winter-hardiness than winter wheat and far less than rye. Like other cereals, barley is typically planted on tilled land. Seed was traditionally scattered, but in developed countries is usually drilled. As it grows it requires soil nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), often supplied as fertilizers. It needs to be monitored for pests and diseases, and if necessary treated before these become serious. The stems and ears turn yellow when ripe, and the ears begin to droop. Traditional harvesting was by hand with sickles or scythes; in developed countries, harvesting is mechanised with combine harvesters. File:Tramlines in the sun - geograph.org.uk - 1565399.jpg|Young winter barley in early November,Scotland, 2009 File:Cessna188AGWagonZKCSE.jpg|Spraying barley for rust fungus,New Zealand, 1979 File:In The Barley Harvest Bonham's.jpg|Traditional barley harvest by hand with scythes, England, c. 1886.Photo Peter Henry Emerson File:Claas Dominator 85 harvesting winter barley at Ostrittrum.jpg|Harvesting winter barley with a combine harvester, Germany, 2017 == Pests and diseases ==

Among the insect pests of barley are aphids such as Russian wheat aphid, caterpillars such as of the armyworm moth, barley mealybug, and wireworm larvae of click beetle genera such as Aeolus. Aphid damage can often be tolerated, whereas armyworms can eat whole leaves. Wireworms kill seedlings, and require seed or preplanting treatment. Serious fungal diseases of barley include powdery mildew caused by Blumeria hordei, leaf scald caused by Rhynchosporium secalis, barley rust caused by Puccinia hordei, crown rust caused by Puccinia coronata, various diseases caused by Cochliobolus sativus, Fusarium ear blight, and stem rust (Puccinia graminis). Bacterial diseases of barley include bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucens. Barley is susceptible to several viral diseases, such as barley mild mosaic bymovirus. Some viruses, such as barley yellow dwarf virus, vectored by the rice root aphid, can cause serious crop injury. For durable disease resistance, quantitative resistance is more important than qualitative resistance. The most important foliar diseases have corresponding resistance gene regions on all chromosomes of barley. File:Coleoptera larvae (ritnaalden).jpg|Wireworms, the larvae of click beetles, kill barley seedlings. File:Puccinia hordei G.H. Otth 5410688.jpg|Barley rust, a disease caused by the fungus Puccinia hordei == Food ==

Preparation Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous, outer husk or hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley). Pearl barley (or pearled barley) is dehulled to remove most of the bran, and polished. With a long history of cultivation in the Middle East, barley is used in a wide range of traditional Arabic, Assyrian, Israelite, Kurdish, and Persian foodstuffs including keşkek, kashk, and murri. Barley soup is traditionally eaten during Ramadan in Saudi Arabia. Cholent or hamin (in Hebrew) is a traditional Jewish stew often eaten on the Sabbath, in numerous recipes by both Mizrachi and Ashkenazi Jews; its original form was a barley porridge. In Eastern and Central Europe, barley is used in soups and stews such as ričet. In Africa, where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare. The six-row variety bere is cultivated in Orkney, Shetland, Caithness and the Western Isles of the Scottish Highlands and Islands. When milled into beremeal, it is used locally in bread, biscuits, and the traditional beremeal bannock. In Japanese cuisine, barley is mixed with rice and steamed as mugimeshi. The naval surgeon Takaki Kanehiro introduced it into institutional cooking to combat beriberi, endemic in the armed forces in the 19th century. It became standard prison fare, and remains a staple in the Japan Self-Defense Forces. In Korean cuisine, a similar dish called boribap (보리밥) has been eaten since the Joseon dynasty. In Jeju Island, unripe barley rice was eaten in spring when food was short. Barley rice, hard to cook and linked to poverty, had lower status than white rice. In the 1960s and 1970s, schoolchildren's lunchboxes had to contain barley rice. Barley rice has become a nostalgic food for older people, served in specialty restaurants. File:Drying barley grains in Kullu district, Himachal Pradesh, India,1.jpg|Air-dried barley File:Barley Seeds.jpg|Barley grains with and without the outer husk File:BannockBeremeal.jpg|Beremeal bannock, Orkney, 2008 File:Mugimeshi.jpg|Mugimeshi, Japanese steamed barley rice File:Tokat keshkek.jpg|Keşkek, a Middle Eastern barley stew Nutrition Cooked barley is 69% water, 28% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) reference serving, cooked barley provides of food energy and is a good source (10% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of essential nutrients, including, dietary fibre, the B vitamin niacin (14% DV), and dietary minerals, including iron (10% DV) and manganese (12% DV) (table). Health implications According to Health Canada and the US Food and Drug Administration, consuming at least 3 grams per day of barley beta-glucan can lower levels of blood cholesterol, a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Eating whole-grain barley, a high-fibre grain, improves regulation of blood sugar (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal). Consuming breakfast cereals containing barley over weeks to months improves cholesterol levels and glucose regulation. Barley contains gluten, which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with gluten-related disorders, such as coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy sufferers. Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate barley. == Uses ==

Beer, whisky, and soft drinks Barley, made into malt, is a key ingredient in beer and whisky production. Distilled from green beer, Scottish and Irish whisky are made primarily from barley. About 25% of American barley is used for malting, for which barley is the best-suited grain. Accordingly, barley is often assessed by its malting enzyme content. Barley wine is a style of strong beer from the English brewing tradition. An 18th-century alcoholic drink of the same name was made by boiling barley in water, then mixing the barley water with white wine, borage, lemon and sugar. In the 19th century, a different barley wine was prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin. and roasted barley tea have been made by boiling barley in water. In Italy, roasted barley is sometimes used as coffee substitute, ''caffè d'orzo'' (barley coffee). File:HectorTurning (cropped).jpg|Traditional floor malting in Scotland for malt whisky File:Mash-Jinx (cropped).jpg|Barley grains being mashed (heated with water) for brewing beer File:Hauf an a hauf 1 (cropped).jpg|Scotch whisky and beer,both made from barley File:Boricha (barley tea) (cropped).jpg|Boricha, Koreanroasted barley tea Animal feed pellets Some 70% of the world's barley production is used as livestock feed, for example for cattle feeding in western Canada. In 2014, an enzymatic process was devised to make a high-protein fish feed from barley, suitable for carnivorous fish such as trout and salmon. Other uses Barley straw has been placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help prevent algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. The technique's effectiveness is at best mixed. Barley grains were once used for measurement in England, there being nominally three or four barleycorns to the inch. By the 19th century, this had been superseded by standard inch measures. In ancient Mesopotamia, barley was used as a form of money, the standard unit of weight for barley, and hence of value, being the shekel. Barley water was used in medieval times as a remedy, as mentioned by Avicenna. == Culture and folklore ==

In the Old English poem Beowulf, and in Norse mythology, Scyld Scefing (the second name meaning "with a sheaf") and his son Beow ("Barley") are associated with the grain, or are possibly corn-gods; J. R. R. Tolkien wrote a poem "King Sheave" about them, and based a major element of his legendarium, the Old Straight Road from Middle-earth to the earthly paradise of Valinor, on their story. William of Malmesbury's 12th century Chronicle tells the story of the related figure Sceafa as a sleeping child in a boat without oars with a sheaf of corn at his head. Axel Olrik identified Peko, a parallel "barley-figure" in Finnish culture, in turn connected by R.D. Fulk with the Eddaic Bergelmir. In English folklore, the figure of John Barleycorn in the folksong of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the beer made from it. In the song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting; but he is revenged by getting the men drunk: "And little Sir John and the nut-brown bowl / Proved the strongest man at last." The folksong "Elsie Marley" celebrates an alewife of County Durham with lines such as "And do you ken Elsie Marley, honey? / The wife that sells the barley, honey". The antiquary Cuthbert Sharp records that Elsie Marley was "a handsome, buxom, bustling landlady, and brought good custom to the [ale] house by her civility and attention." English pub names such as The Barley Mow, John Barleycorn, and Mash Tun allude to barley's role in the production of beer. File:John Barleycorn MET DP-300-063 (cropped).jpg|Porcelain figurine of John Barleycorn, complete with songsheet and little brown jug of beer File:The Barley Mow, Clifton Hampden (wide).jpg|English pub names such as The Barley Mow (like this pub at Clifton Hampden) allude to the use of barley to make the beer available inside. == References ==