República Mista

Tomás Fernández de Medrano's transmitted and codified doctrine, as outlined in the first treatise of República Mista, presents a lived and practiced system of mixed republic that integrates monarchy, aristocracy, and timocracy into a single moral and juridical order grounded in religion, in which each form tempers the excesses of the others to preserve justice, stability, and the common good. His República Mista was a written seven-part series, with each volume addressing three key precepts drawn from the seven most flourishing republics in history. Only the first volume was published, devoted to the Roman precepts of religion, obedience, and justice, rooted in ancient philosophy and applied to governance within the Spanish Empire. Tomás, who permitted his son Juan to bring the work to publication, explicitly stated he wrote seven treatises, publishing only the first, and included his original intent at the outset of the treatise: I present only the first of seven treatises I have written, each addressing three points. This one focuses on the primary precepts of religion, obedience, and justice, to see how it is received. If it is well-received, the others will follow, collectively titled Mixed Republic. Since these matters concern everyone, I dedicate this to all, so that each may take what best suits their purpose. In the first and only printed volume, Tomás Fernández de Medrano illustrates three Roman precepts through scriptural references, historical examples, and contemporary models of leadership. From classical antiquity, he draws on thinkers such as Cicero, Tacitus, Plato, and Aristotle, whose reflections on governance, virtue, and justice underpin much of his analysis. Codifying a Universal Doctrine Although composed in the early seventeenth century, the first volume of the República Mista codified a doctrine of natural and divine precepts already present in earlier traditions across various civilizations. Drawing from classical, biblical, philosophical, legal, and royal sources, Tomás Fernández de Medrano codified these doctrines and precepts through the scholastic method, historically upheld in Spanish administrative practice and in the historical vocation of the Medrano family. The treatise united these inherited doctrines and precepts into a coherent system of lawful prosperity (medrar), grounded in virtue, service, delegated authority, and bound by natural and divine law. Together, the family generationally shaped dynastic, legal, educational, and cultural structures across the centuries. == Authorship ==

Miguel Herrero García, in his introduction to Fray Juan de Salazar's book, declares: Don Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval, of the house of the Lords of Valdeosera, is credited as the author of this book, published in Madrid in 1602 under the title República Mista. However, despite what the cover states, we conclude that the book was written by his father, Tomás Fernández de Medrano. The Spanish bibliographer Nicolás Antonio, knight of Santiago, unequivocally attributes the authorship of the Mixed Republic to Tomás Fernández de Medrano. This father-son collaboration is echoed in the Orazion Consotoria dedicated to Lord Carlo Emanuel, Duke of Savoy, with Tomás as the author and his son Juan responsible for its publication. Similarly, the funeral oration honoring the virtues of King Philip II is also credited to Tomás Fernández de Medrano. According to the royal decree issued by Philip III of Spain, Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval discovered "a book titled A Treatise on Three Precepts by Which the Romans Were Better Governed" among the papers of his father, Tomás Fernández de Medrano. Miguel Herrero García asserts that the royal printing license "leaves no room for doubt" regarding Tomás Fernández de Medrano's authorship. He states that this was not simply a harmless literary device of the time, citing several points: Medrano was alive when the license was granted, the book contains multiple first-person accounts of events in Italy, it simultaneously functions as a preserver of the oration by Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, under whom Medrano served as advisor and secretary of state and war (1591—1598). Author In the first section titled Princes, Ministers, Subjects, Tomás Fernández de Medrano used a chivalric-metaphor to explain why he initially wrote República Mista anonymously: Let no one inquire about the identity of this adventurer, who has dared to step into the public arena with a masked face, fearing the risk of gaining no honor. For that reason, I ask earnestly not to be commanded to reveal myself, for I come from the confines of a prison where I find myself, and I am running this course with these three lances. And if, due to their strength, I cannot break them, I humbly ask the judges to observe where the blows land. I promise they will all strike above the belt, and with such skill that no one will be harmed, offended, or dismounted from their horse. My intentions are truly good. Born in Entrena, La Rioja, Tomás Fernández de Medrano of the influential House of Medrano held numerous civic, noble, and ecclesiastical titles. He served as Mayor, Chief Magistrate, Divisero, and Lord of Valdeosera, as well as a Knight of the Order of Saint John, manager of the Grand Prior of Castile, and patron of the Convent of San Juan de Acre in Salinas de Añana. From 1579 to 1581, he served as secretary to Prince Giovanni Andrea Doria, and later spent eight years in Rome under Enrique de Guzmán, 2nd Count of Olivares. He was appointed Secretary of the Holy Chapters and Assemblies of Castile, maintaining a continued role in both religious and political governance. Medrano advised the monarchs of Spain and held high office abroad, serving as Secretary of State and War to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and to Princess Catalina Micaela of Spain, daughter of Philip II, from 1591 to 1598. == Royal decree by Philip III of Spain (1601) ==

Medrano's son, Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval, formally petitioned the king and the Royal Council for license to publish his father's República Mista. Following this petition and its examination by the Council, Philip III of Spain issued a royal decree on 25 September 1601 in which he expressly identified and restated the three precepts of the treatise in his own words: Since it was brought to our attention by you, Don Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval, that among the papers of Tomás Fernández de Medrano, your father, who was Secretary of State and War for the Duke of Savoy and for my dearly beloved sister, the Infanta Lady Catalina, who is in heaven, and now serves the Princes of Savoy, my nephews, you discovered a book titled A Treatise on Three Precepts by Which the Romans Were Better Governed. The first is about the importance of kings and princes being religious. The second pertains to the obedience owed to them by their subjects, the reverence with which they must speak of them and of their ministers, counselors, and magistrates. The third addresses how the good should be rewarded and the bad punished. Philip granted Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval license and faculty for its printing throughout the Kingdoms of Castile for a period of six years from the date of the decree. You requested and petitioned that we grant you permission and the privilege to print it for as long as we deem appropriate, or in the manner of our mercy. This, having been considered by our Council, has led us to issue this royal decree for you in this matter, and we have deemed it acceptable. The decree established formal legal protection for the text and specified the penalties for unauthorized reproduction without Juan Fernández de Medrano's authority. "Under the penalty that any person, without your authority, who prints or sells it, or causes it to be printed or sold, shall forfeit the impression made, along with the molds and materials thereof, and incur an additional fine of fifty thousand maravedís for each infringement. This fine shall be divided: one-third to the accuser, one-third to our Treasury, and one-third to the judge who passes sentence." The decree further required that any reprinting within the six-year term conform exactly to the inspected original, signed on every page and at its conclusion by Juan Gallo de Andrada, Secretary of the Chamber. Each printed copy was to include the authorized errata, and no edition could be issued until verified and priced by the Royal Council. In this manner, the faithful transmission of the doctrine was secured under royal law. Philip concluded the decree with a directive upon all judicial authorities within his realms: "We command our Council and all other justices thereof to observe and execute this our decree and its contents." The royal decree was issued at Valladolid on 25 September 1601, signed by Philip III and countersigned by Luis de Salazar by order of the King. At the time of the decree, García de Medrano y Castejón had been appointed by the king to reform the Holy Military Order of Santiago, while serving as Minister of Justice and as a councilor of the Council of the Orders. These were the very bodies to which the command to observe and execute was directed. Philip III's decree presents the precepts as the operative order of a Catholic monarchy already governed under divine and ecclesial law. By commanding all councils and justices to observe and execute the decree and its contents, Philip III did not create new precepts of governance but affirmed and strengthened the precepts of religion, obedience, and justice already operative within the Spanish monarchy, thereby granting them explicit juridical authority. In this context, Tomás codified an order already practiced in Spain, while parallel Medrano reforms supplied the institutional mechanisms through which the same doctrine was secured within the monarchy's juridical and educational bodies. The six-year commercial privilege and the permanent command to observe and execute operated as complementary elements of a single constitutional act. The printing license regulated the authenticated dissemination of the text, while the royal directive, unlimited in duration, incorporated its contents into the enduring obligations of judicial authority throughout the Spanish Empire. The limited term ensured the circulation of an authorized edition, while the command established a perpetual juridical obligation. Therefore, the decree transformed Tomás Fernández de Medrano's dedication to all readers into institutional form through regulated distribution followed by permanent legal authority. == Historical context ==

Philip III of Spain (1598–1621), ruler of the Spanish Empire at the height of its power, nevertheless faced challenges in governance. In the first volume of the República Mista, titled On the Three Precepts that the Ambassador of the Romans Gave to King Ptolemy Regarding the Good Governance of His Republic, Medrano frames his treatise as a codified doctrine upheld in Spain and focused on the three precepts of religion, obedience, and justice as the foundation of Spanish governance. As analyzed by Rubiés, this convergence produced persistent uncertainty over how unified royal authority related to plural structures of governance, including councils, magistracies, and representative institutions, in the absence of a settled account of their relation to sovereign power. This form of government has been observed in Navarrese, Aragonese, Castilian, and Spanish governance, transmitted through the reigns of various monarchs, including Joan II of Navarre, John I of Castile, Henry III of Castile, John II of Castile, Isabella I, Philip I, Charles V, Philip II, confirmed under Philip III, maintained under Philip IV, Charles II, carried through the reign of Philip V, and continued under the reigns of his sons Ferdinand VI, Charles III, and their princely brothers. The eight royal regalia in the Spanish Empire In the early 17th century, a strong royalist ethos emerged, asserting that the king was legibus solutus (not bound by laws) in civil matters, though still subject to divine and natural law. Phrases like scientia certa, motu proprio, and non-obstante facilitated the development of royal sovereignty, which was nevertheless distinguished from tyranny. This interpretation of royal power was so widely accepted that República Mista (1602) by Tomás Fernández de Medrano codified and reaffirmed the king's authority in civil affairs and taught that resistance to a legitimate ruler was contrary to divine and natural law, citing scriptural foundations from 1 Samuel 8 to Jeremiah 27. Tomás taught that any discussion of royal authority must begin with the classical distinction between the two forms of justice. He explained that philosophers divide justice into distributive and commutative, and that the first is most relevant for kingship. • (1) Distributive justice concerns the rightful granting of honor, dignity, office, punishment, and reward according to each person's condition. • (2) Commutative justice concerns the fair observance of promises, contracts, and reciprocal duty. He cited the universal maxim: Quod tibi non vis, alteri ne feceris "Do not do unto others what you would not wish done unto you." Medrano's República Mista significantly shaped Philip III's approach to kingship. His República Mista reinforced Madrid-Rome ties, and associated a religious foundation with the Spanish monarchy's "greatness" and prestige. == Medrano's Contemporary Defense of Philip III of Spain ==

of King Philip III of Spain, whom Tomás Fernández de Medrano presents in República Mista as a model of kingship, praising his humility. While many modern historians regard Philip III of Spain as a weak and disengaged monarch, Medrano presents a humble description in República Mista (1602): Is there a greater example of justice and sanctity than the one shown by our Lord King Philip III in Valladolid? When constructing a passage for his own comfort and convenience, he graciously sent a request to a poor baker, asking him, with utmost respect, if he would allow the passage to go through a small room in his house. The baker, responding with loyalty and wisdom beyond his station, answered that the King's will should be done, as his life and livelihood were at the King's disposal. In return, the King rewarded this common man with generous gifts befitting a humble subject who had served his King like a true noble. Anecdotes, such as the king requesting permission from a baker to pass through his home, illustrate Medrano's view of Philip III grounded in fairness and magnanimity. Tomás Fernández de Medrano teaches that discretion and restraint are necessary virtues for subjects who live under a just Catholic king. He writes: Interdum "Sometimes it is convenient not to know certain things." He then cites Seneca: Qui plus scire velle quam satis sit; intemperantiae genus est "Wanting to know more than is necessary is a form of excess." Such restraint strengthens loyalty to the king, to his councils, and to his magistrates. It helps preserve a measure of peace in this life and reminds humanity that this world is not their lasting home. Therefore, the loyalty and silence of subjects toward their king and rightful lord, and toward his councils and magistrates, are crucial virtues within the populace and powerful means of attaining some peace in this life. He teaches that this peace reminds us "that we live and journey toward an eternal life, not this fleeting, mortal, and transitory one." All great monarchies eventually fall. Nothing beneath heaven is immortal. Tomás therefore asks: qui potest dicere immortalitatem sub coelo "Who can claim immortality under heaven?" Subjects are instructed to pray that God preserve their holy, valiant, magnanimous, generous, just, wise, and compassionate king. Tomás then describes Philip III's virtues. The king is holy because he has no disordered inclinations and entrusts difficult matters to wise and religious counselors placed beside him by divine providence. He is valiant because he understands that power collapses unless it is accompanied by real strength. For this reason he assembled a great fleet and army that humbled his greatest enemies without requiring bloodshed or his personal presence on the battlefield. He is magnanimous because he could have annihilated certain princes for his advantage yet chose to show them mercy. Tomás cites Saint Isidore: Plerunque princeps iustus etiam malorum errores dissimulare novit, non quod iniquitati eorum consentiat; sed quod aptum tempus correctionis expectet "A just prince often knows how to overlook even the errors of the wicked, not because he approves of their iniquity but because he waits for the appropriate time to correct them." Medrano affirms that Philip III is just because he knows the gravity of governing well and has personally visited his realm, listening to and correcting the needs of his subjects. Tomás then repeats the ancient warning that an emperor who encloses himself at home and sees only what others report will judge poorly. He quotes Diocletian: Bonus, cautus, optimus venditur Imperator "The good, the prudent, and the excellent emperor is a rare treasure." The king is prudent because although naturally inclined to hunting and war, he has set these aside for noble and sacred reasons, serving God, preserving his health, and benefiting his people. A ruler's moderation, he writes, reforms customs. of Sallust. He is compassionate because, at the urging of Pope Clement VIII, whom he deeply venerates, he acted against the harsh maxim of Sallust: Nemo alteri imperium volens concedit; et quamvis bonus, atque clemens sit, qui plus potest, tamen quia malo esse licet formidatur "No one willingly yields power to another; and even though he may be good and gentle, one who holds power is feared because he has the capacity to be otherwise." Though kings generally believe that yielding is as shameful as defeat, Philip III yielded when justice and charity required it, choosing to safeguard the peace the monarchy enjoys. Tomás cites Saint Gregory: Reges quando boni sunt, muneris est Dei; quando vero iniqui, sceleris est populi "Good kings are the gift of God, and wicked ones are the punishment of the people." He concludes with a reflection on human nature. Those inclined to speak freely and condemn injustice often displease the powerful. Tomás recalls Tacitus: Semper alicui potentium invisus, non-culpa, sed ut flagitiorum impatiens "One who is always disliked by the powerful is not guilty of wrongdoing but rather intolerant of wrongdoing." For this reason he advises that those who seek peace and security will often prefer to live far from courts and the pressures of public life, where they may enjoy a more tranquil existence. In his República Mista, Tomás Fernández de Medrano presents Philip III as the model of a virtuous Catholic monarch, demonstrating that holy kingship is upheld not through force alone but through justice, prudence, mercy, and piety. Medrano on sacred distance in the Spanish Monarchy In 1617, Medrano's codified doctrine in the República Mista was fully embraced by Fray Juan de Salazar in his attempt to define the Spanish monarchy. During the reign of Philip II of Spain, royal inaccessibility and limited visibility came to be regarded as defining elements of kingship. His supporters argued that distance from the monarch strengthened obedience and reverence among subjects. In response to this vision, Philip III took the idea of royal inaccessibility even further than his father, restricting public access and delegating the management of audiences to the Duke of Lerma, reinforcing the king's sacred distance with the second type of authority. He balances sacred distance by arguing that what is rarely seen is more deeply revered, and that this deliberate isolation preserved the king's idealized image by concealing potential flaws, thereby legitimizing the presence of a valido to act as his public and political representative. Drawing on lesser-known figures such as Callisthenes, adviser to Alexander the Great, and Panaetius of Rhodes, companion to Scipio Aemilianus, Medrano confirmed that trusted confidants could serve not as threats to royal authority but as prudent and loyal counselors who strengthened effective governance. He observes the value of such counsel: We see that there has not been a great and prudent prince who did not have a servant as a faithful friend, someone (to discreetly moderate his passions, help him carry the burden, and speak the truth) with more authority than all others. Callisthenes served this role for Alexander, Panaetius for Scipio, and many other secretaries whose experience and prudence have brought much glory to the governance of many princes. These princes, if they are wise and experienced, shape their ministers to fit their needs. And conversely, expert ministers make prudent and glorious the princes who are not, if those princes are teachable. Happy, then, in my view, is the one who says this, and happy the republic when such a servant, friend, or valido proves to be of such a nature that the deeds of his heart and courage correspond in greatness to the one whom kings and princes ought to have. For where there is nobility of blood, and noble habits and customs, there can be nothing that does not reflect it. And so, what shall we say when to all this is added such zeal, goodness, and piety as we now see, witness, and experience? Amid growing criticism of the valido (royal favourite) during the early reign of Philip III, Tomás Fernández de Medrano offered a contrasting perspective in República Mista (1602). While many contemporary thinkers viewed the concentration of royal trust in a single individual as a threat to authority, Medrano, writing under the patronage of the Duke of Lerma, defended the political utility of the valido. He presented the figure of the valido not as a rival to the king, but as a necessary extension of royal governance, someone entrusted with distinct responsibilities that contributed to a more unified and effective administration. While defining delegated authority, Medrano simultaneously denounces favoritism and the corruption of courtly life. He strongly criticizes nepotism, flattery, and the promotion of the unworthy, urging sovereigns to honor merit and uphold justice as a foundational precept of their authority. This vision of a prudent valido did not end with Tomás Fernández de Medrano, Lord of Valdeosera. His great-nephew, Diego Fernández de Medrano y Zenizeros, Lord of Valdeosera and Sojuela; a nobleman, a presbyter, and chaplain to Luis Méndez de Haro, Valido of Philip IV, carried the doctrine forward in a later panegyric-treatise titled Heroic and Flying Fame. He invoked figures such as Aristotle, Euclid, Apelles, and Lysippus to frame Haro's statesmanship as surpassing the achievements of antiquity. Where Tomás drew on classical examples to justify the role of the valido, Diego used them to exalt Haro as its most refined expression. His work immortalizes Luis de Haro, nephew and successor of the Count-Duke of Olivares, as an exemplary valido whose conduct embodied wisdom, restraint, and virtue, notably during his negotiations at the treaty of the Pyrenees. == Dedication to the Duke of Lerma ==

The República Mista is openly dedicated to Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas, 1st Duke of Lerma, the first great valido, as its patron, dated 22 August 1601. == Princes, Ministers, Subjects ==

as Pharaoh of Egypt In the opening section entitled "Princes, Subjects, Ministers," Medrano references ambassadors from various ancient republics to introduce precepts essential for maintaining a strong and enduring republic. Medrano sought to unify twenty-one precepts to showcase the diverse yet essential precepts underlying effective statecraft. Medrano describes: When Ptolemy, King of Egypt, was discussing matters with the most distinguished ambassadors of the most flourishing republics of that era, he requested from each of them three essential precepts or laws by which their nations were governed. Each flourishing Republic and its corresponding three precepts represents one of the seven complete treatises Medrano had already written. Only the first, on religion, obedience, and justice, was published in 1602 as the first volume of the República Mista. Twenty-one precepts of the República Mista • The Roman ambassador said: "We Romans hold great respect and reverence for our temples and our homeland. We deeply obey the mandates of our governors and magistrates. We reward the good and punish the wicked with severity." • The Carthaginian ambassador states, "In our republic, the nobles never cease to fight, the officials and commoners never stop working, and the philosophers continually teach." • The Sicilian ambassador asserts, "Among us, justice is strictly upheld. Business is conducted with truthfulness. All are esteemed as equals." • The Rhodian ambassador remarks, "In Rhodes, the elderly are honorable, the young men are modest, and the women are reserved and speak sparingly." • The Athenian ambassador declares, "We do not allow the rich to be partial, the poor to be idle, or those who govern to be ignorant." • The Lacedaemonian (Spartan) ambassador proclaims, "In Sparta, envy does not reign because there is equality; greed does not exist because goods are shared in common; and idleness is absent because everyone works." • The Sicyonian ambassador explains, "We do not permit anyone to travel abroad, so that they do not bring back new and disruptive ideas upon their return; nor do we allow physicians who could harm the healthy, nor lawyers and orators who would take up the defense of disputes and lawsuits." Medrano concludes that if these customs were upheld in a state, it would maintain its greatness for a long time. He encourages a deep study and thoughtful application of these precepts, integrating lessons from both sacred texts and historical accounts to guide governance and societal harmony. == Prologue ==

República Mista begins with a foundational 16-page prologue, establishing Medrano's vision of governance through history, philosophy, and divine law. This opening establishes the intellectual foundation for comprehending the delicate equilibrium of governance within a mixed republic. Emphasizing the three essential pillars of religion, obedience, and justice, Medrano writes: Divine justice and human governance are so closely intertwined that one cannot exist among men without the other. Expanding upon this foundation, Medrano presents three virtuous forms of government: monarchy, aristocracy, and timocracy, and contrasts them with their corrupt counterparts: tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy in its degenerated form. He explains that each virtuous form serves the public good, while the corrupt forms devolve into self-serving rule. By contrasting these three opposites, Medrano delineates the three forms of good government within a mixed republic that blends monarchy, aristocracy, and timocracy, thereby codifying a structure of governance capable of resisting the inherent vices of each form in isolation. Drawing on historical and philosophical examples, including the Spanish monarchy, Medrano demonstrates how this balance fosters societal harmony and stability while avoiding the pitfalls of purely singular forms of government. He teaches that each system degenerates when it loses its foundational virtues and becomes consumed by selfishness or disarray. Monarchy , monarch of Spain. Medrano views monarchy as the most natural and cohesive form of governance. A single ruler, he confirms, provides unity and decisiveness, ensuring that decisions are made in the interest of the entire state. He draws on philosophical reasoning, quoting Aristotle's assertion that "a multitude of rulers is not good," and emphasizes that a virtuous monarch must prioritize the public good over personal gain. However, Medrano warns of monarchy's potential to devolve into tyranny if power becomes unchecked or if rulers lack moral integrity. Medrano identifies monarchy as the closest reflection of divine governance, citing the singularity of God as the ideal for unity and authority: As there is one God, creator and ruler of all, so should there be one prince, governing with wisdom and justice... the governance of one represents the order of nature, by which all things are reduced to a primary ruling precept, just as all celestial orbs and moving things are ordered by the prime mover. Hence, we observe in the universe a single God, creator and governor of all (Rex Deus quifpiam humanus est); in the bees, one queen; in the flock, one shepherd. And for the sake of peace and the preservation of all things, what is more appropriate than to concentrate power in a single ruler? A monarch, he explains, must emulate divine virtues, prioritizing the common good over personal desires. Medrano warns, however, that monarchy can devolve into tyranny if the ruler strays from these virtues, emphasizing the need for piety and humility to align earthly authority with divine will. Regarding tyranny, he states, "A tyrant governs not for the people, but for his own desires, treating the state as his possession rather than a sacred trust." Tyranny arises when a monarch abandons justice and piety, becoming an oppressor rather than a protector. Aristocracy Aristocracy, the governance by the virtuous, is extolled by Medrano for its focus on wisdom, experience, and the common good. Medrano introduces aristocracy as the second form of "just and good Republic," a form of government he calls "the power of the most virtuous," which in Latin they call Optimates, for they are esteemed to be good and most virtuous: This form of government takes place when a few men, esteemed for their good customs and doctrine, hold authority over the body of the people and enact laws for the rest of the populace (whether in general or in particular), directing their purpose solely towards public benefit and utility, as was excellently seen among the Lacedaemonians, whose Republic surpassed all others and endured for nearly five hundred years, having long held the empire of Greece. He presents historical examples like the governance of Sparta, which achieved remarkable longevity and stability through a carefully structured aristocratic system. In aristocracy, Medrano sees the potential for collective wisdom and virtue to govern effectively. He introduces the opposite of aristocracy, which he identified as oligarchy: Opposed to this (as its contrary) is Oligarchy, the second form of depraved Republic, which occurs when a few noble or wealthy men seize authority over public administration, disregarding the poor, and orienting their purpose toward private benefit rather than public welfare, converting their obligation into tyranny, as happened in Sicily and in all ancient oligarchies. Medrano affirms that aristocracy is most effective when leaders are chosen by merit rather than privilege, but warns that it degenerates into oligarchy when corrupted by greed and self-interest. Oligarchy serves a narrow minority at the expense of the common good, undermining political harmony. To prevent this decline, he insists that rulers be guided by good customs and doctrine. Timocracy Timocracy, which Medrano defines as governance by individuals of moderate wealth and merit, occupies a middle ground between monarchy and aristocracy. Drawing on Aristotle's insights, Medrano notes that this form of governance ensures that neither extreme wealth nor poverty dominates, fostering a more equitable society. However, he notes that timocracy is vulnerable to instability when personal interests outweigh collective responsibility. On timocracy, he writes: The third form of just and good Republic is called Timocracy, which is the rule of moderate wealth. Aristotle speaks of this, saying: "A civil society constituted by such men is most beneficial, and cities are well-governed by them, for where there is an extreme of wealth and poverty, it tends to produce either extreme Democracy, intolerable Oligarchy, or tyranny due to these excesses. Medrano regards timocracy as a governance system rooted in moderation and equity, drawing parallels to God's justice in rewarding virtue and punishing vice. This form of government relies on individuals with sufficient means and merit to serve the public interest without succumbing to greed. Medrano warns, however, that without divine and natural precepts to temper human ambition, timocracy can degenerate into chaos or selfish governance. Timocracy's opposite, Democracy, which he calls "a depraved form of republic," while acknowledging its appeal to liberty, is described as unstable and prone to excess. Medrano introduces the final form of "depraved Republic" he identifies as democracy, where free men and the poor, being in greater number, are "masters of the State," which he identifies in five forms: The first, where government is equally shared among all. The second, where a small amount of wealth is taken into consideration. The third, where, with laws in place, all citizens participate in governance. The fourth, where anyone can rise to the office of Magistrate as long as they are a citizen and the law permits it. The fifth, where, with all other things being equal, the multitude rules instead of the law, governing the State at its own whim, oppressing the virtuous, the wealthy, and the noble with daily decrees and provisions, to live licentiously. This is called Ochlocracy (which is insolent popular rule) and is more of a tyranny than a republic, like the Democracy of Athens. Medrano uses the Democracy of Athens to warn that unchecked democracy, though appealing in its promise of liberty, can easily descend into mob rule (ochlocracy), where fleeting passions overpower reason and governance becomes erratic. The Spanish Monarchy as a Mixed Republic illustration in República Mista: "To hold a straight course in this stormy sea, and not to be swept away by the winds of pleasure in the height of fortune, is a great thing." Tomás Fernández de Medrano's prologue culminates in the mixed republic, where the strengths of monarchy, aristocracy, and timocracy are interwoven to create a balanced and enduring system. For Medrano, only a divinely guided mixed republic can sustain lasting stability, equity, and justice, anchoring human governance in the civil, natural and divine laws of God: From these three forms, philosophers composed a mixed Republic, saying that any form of Republic established on its own and in simple terms soon degenerates into the nearest vice if not moderated by the others; and that, to sustain Republics in proper governance, they must incorporate the virtues and characteristics of the other forms, for none of them fears excessive growth that might lead it to incline towards its closest vice and consequently fall into ruin. For this reason, many ancient and modern thinkers have held the view that the Republics of the Lacedaemonians, Carthaginians, Romans, and other renowned Republics were composed and justly blended from Royal, Aristocratic, and Popular powers. To avoid any confusion or ambiguity, we can say that if authority lies in a single Prince, the Magistracy is a Monarchy, as in Spain, France, Portugal, and (in earlier times) England, Scotland, Sweden, and Poland. If all the people have a share in power, then the State is popular, like in Switzerland, the Grisons, and some free cities of Germany. If only the smallest portion of the people hold power (as in Venice, where it's held by the nobles, and in Genoa, by the twenty-eight families), it is called a Signoria, and the State is Aristocratic, as it was with the Romans, the Athenians, and many other republics that flourished most when they incorporated elements of both popular and aristocratic governance. Although time's injuries and the malice of people may strain the form of any of these governments against its own nature, its essence does not change even if it acquires a different quality. He praises historical examples like the Roman Republic, which successfully blended these elements to achieve remarkable governance. "Republics that integrate the virtues of multiple systems of government," Medrano affirms, "achieve a balance that guards against the excesses of any single form." For Medrano, power must always be tempered with virtue. He advocates for a governance structure that unites the authority of monarchy, the wisdom of aristocracy, and the equity of timocracy, ensuring that justice, stability, and prosperity endure. At the core of his doctrinal treatise is a divine precept: just as God's singularity is absolute, so too must governance uphold unity, justice, and moral accountability. Medrano asserts, true leadership requires a reflection of divine virtues. Authority must not be wielded arbitrarily but must align with God's justice, shaping a government that is not only permissible but enduring. Spain as the Model of the Mixed Republic Medrano concludes his 16 page prologue by affirming that the Spanish Empire, already governed under this form of government, may serve as a mirror of the past and an example for the future: Since Heaven has given us such a government, one that can serve as a mirror of the past and an example for the future, and ministers well-suited to both its needs and our welfare, let us live content under this government, and I will share what occurs to me regarding the three points I have proposed. I note that in some parts where it is more fitting to persuade with truth drawn from Sacred Scripture, I include the clause or entire authority in the original Latin language, translating or paraphrasing it afterward into our vernacular. He notes that this may be somewhat tedious for learned men, who will need to read it twice, but this will not be the case for everyone, and "many esteemed authors have also done this; in fact, it is quite common." Although some modern writers do the opposite, "in many parts of this work, they may find it pleasing. I would wish to please everyone, for if my intent is to serve and benefit the public (which is undoubted)," he was compelled to ensure he does not lose anyone individually. If, in matters of religion or justice, I include examples from ancient or Gentile times, as well as from Catholic Kings and Princes of our own time, while omitting others equally deserving of mention, it is, first of all, because I believe that recognizing these examples will not detract from the glory we give to those we have never seen, many of whom reside in hell. Secondly, if all worthy examples were to be included in this first treatise, it would be excessively lengthy, and I could not avoid being regarded (by the common people) as a flatterer, a reputation I have always avoided and is evident in my character, for I have valued and continue to value the glory of an age over that of a single day. Medrano concludes by quoting Seneca with an awareness that, Nec quidquam tam probe aut provide hic dici, quod non vellicare audeat malignitas possit ("there is nothing so well or wisely said here that malice cannot find a way to criticize"). == Book one: Religion ==

The first book in the first volume of República Mista, which begins on page 17, is focused on the respect and reverence of the Romans for the temples, and the homeland (patria). He uses this chapter to discuss how important it is that princes be religious. He opens the chapter by quoting Aristotle's Epistle 8: Omnium rerum ad ipsos immortales principia ducuntur ("The origin of all things can be traced back to the immortals themselves"). He connects divine justice and human governance as inseparable, arguing that "one cannot exist among men without the other." For Medrano, religion precedes and enables laws, obedience, justice, and the cohesion of republics. He praises ancient lawmakers Lycurgus, Numa Pompilius, Solon, and others for instilling reverence for the divine, noting that fear and hope in their religions secured social order and civic duty. In Republica Mista, Tomás Fernández de Medrano codifies that the prosperity (medrar) and stability of monarchies are deeply tied to fidelity to their faith and their reverence for religious authority. He credits the expansion of the Spanish monarchy to the devoutness of its rulers, writing that since they "began to enjoy the special protection of the Holy Apostolic see," they have prospered by "persecuting the enemies of our holy faith." He recounts the story of King Alfonso the Chaste, whose devotion led to divine miracles, such as the appearance of angels crafting a jeweled cross, which affirmed Spain's sanctified imperial mission. In contrast, Medrano attributes the decline of France and England to their betrayal of religious fidelity: "By scorning the Apostolic See, the supreme pontiffs, and the Catholic faith," the English monarchy brought ruin not only to itself but also to Scotland and other allied nations. He describes the sacredness of religious spaces, citing Theodosius and Valentinian's decree that "those who forcibly remove anyone seeking refuge in the church should be punished with death," affirming that "one should be safer under the protection of religion than under arms." Throughout, Medrano affirms that true political order rests on respect for divine law, warning against rulers who disguise ambition with false sanctity. "Nothing is more deceptively attractive than false religion," he quotes Livy, "where the divine power of the gods is pretended to cover wickedness." He condemns the use of religion to justify factionalism and civil war, invoking the chaos caused by false prophets and reformers across Europe. In the Religion chapter of República Mista, Tomás Fernández de Medrano codifies Patria (love and service to one's homeland) as a sacred duty, rooted in natural affection, divine law, and moral conscience. Medrano recounts the story of Nehemiah, who was moved to tears upon hearing of Jerusalem's desolation and was granted royal support to rebuild his city. He cites Cicero, who said: "All affections are encompassed in our homeland, for which any noble person would seek death if it would be beneficial." Examples such as Cato the Younger, who resisted unjust laws and rejected political alliances that compromised the Republic, show that true loyalty lies in justice and conscience: "Our conscience and the immortal gods are given to us, and they cannot be separated from us." The chapter continues with patriotic acts across history: El Cid, despite exile, served Castile with valor; Juan Mendez of Évora opposed unjust taxation and was later vindicated by the king; and Lycurgus bound Sparta to his laws even after death. Medrano also recalls Codrus, who gave his life to ensure Athens' survival, asserting that "to die for virtue is no death at all." He praises Spain's Catholic monarchs for defending the faith, founding churches, and extending the Gospel to distant lands. In particular, he honors Philip III for upholding the Inquisition as a "mighty shield and sacred institution." Medrano concludes that the strength of a kingdom depends on its moral and spiritual foundations, quoting Seneca: "Where there is no regard for law, holiness, piety, and faith, the kingdom is unstable." Ultimately, he codifies good governance with religious precepts, instructing rulers to embody truth and virtue to earn the people's trust and God's favor, as only He bestows and withdraws power: "The Lord changes the times and seasons; He raises and deposes kings," quoting Daniel 4. == Book two: Obedience ==

Introduction to the second book in volume one of the República Mista Before the second book of the República Mista, Medrano begins with an introduction on obedience, and a meditation on the necessity of obedience for both spiritual life and civil harmony. Medrano opens by quoting Seneca: "Our minds, like noble and generous horses, are better governed with a light rein." He asserts that if even the ancient Persians taught their children to "love, obey, and revere their princes and magistrates," then Christians should not neglect what even pagans held as sacred. He teaches that the strength of the Roman Republic rested on this precept, and that Christians, called to serve and revere God, must likewise obey their earthly rulers. Obedience to Kings, Councils, and Magistrates, he writes, flows naturally from the teachings of the fourth commandment and should be instilled from the earliest age. Medrano affirms this doctrine is deeply rooted in tradition and that it serves both as a reminder to the wise and a guide to the unknowing. He closes the introduction with a pointed reflection: To give counsel to a fool is an act of charity; to give it to the wise, one of honor; but to offer it in times of depravity, an act of wisdom. Obedience to Princes and Magistrates The second book in the first volume of the República Mista, which begins on page 69, codifies the importance of obedience to princes and magistrates as a safeguard against disorder and rebellion. Medrano states: If knowing how to govern well is the most effective preventative against corruption, then knowing how to obey well which is crucial among the people, is of even greater importance. Where obedience is lacking, order is lost, and disorder takes its place. The most important and advantageous quality that has been preserved in these kingdoms is the high regard we have always held for councils, magistrates, ministers, judges, and public officials, recognizing them as men placed there by the hand of God. For this reason, we honor and respect them as representatives of divine rule over all creatures. Just as the Almighty in His glory has created an order among beings (setting some to serve and others to govern) and placed certain stars in the heavens to shine more brightly than others, as a symbol of His divinity, with the Sun itself illuminating, warming, and nurturing all things on earth for humanity's use, so too He wished that the supreme councils and magistrates in cities, provinces, and kingdoms would shine by virtue of their excellence. Quoting Erasmus, Medrano affirms: "To command and to obey are two things that keep sedition away from citizens and ensure concord." He compares a well-ordered kingdom to a body where the ruler is the head and the law its soul, insisting that "where obedience is lacking, order is lost, and disorder takes its place." Medrano recounts that Sparta's success was not due to the wisdom of its rulers, but because "the citizens knew how to obey." He declares that Spanish unity and prosperity result from a careful balance of powers, ensuring that neither nobility or commoners dominate, sustained by reverence for public officials as "men placed there by the hand of God." He declares that kings must be honored as God's representatives, with respect extended also to their ministers and councils. "This authority," he writes, "is the true source of their greatness," achieved by honoring the king and the realm. Drawing heavily on sacred Scripture, Medrano cites Romans 13, Titus 3, and 1 Peter 2, reinforcing that "there is no power but from God," and that resisting rulers is resisting divine order. Subjects must obey not out of fear alone, but "for conscience' sake." As Tacitus writes, "There can be no peace without arms, no arms without pay, and no pay without taxes." He adds, "Render tribute to whom tribute is due... honor to whom honor." Medrano also reflects on the burdens of rulership, writing: "While we sleep, they remain vigilant... they carry the weight of countless souls under their dominion." He quotes Seleucus: "If one truly knew the weight of a scepter, they would not have the courage to pick it up." He condemns slandering magistrates, stating that "no one should judge the actions of Councillors... but the Prince himself," and praises emperors like Augustus and Vespasian for the honors they showed to senators. Vespasian declared: "I can respond to the injuries they commit, but [subjects] are not allowed to speak ill of them." He asserts that obedience, respect, and prayer for rulers are not only civic duties but sacred obligations that sustain both peace and divine order. Ministers, Obedience, and Counsel . Medrano expands the precept of obedience to include reverence for the ministers and servants of kings, particularly those close to court. He affirms the high dignity historically granted to officers such as the Reyes de Armas (Kings of Arms), describing their role as "a profession akin to the heroic," with privileges dating back to Bacchus, Alexander the Great, Augustus, and Charlemagne. These included safe passage, exemption from common duties, the authority to judge dishonor, and the honor of wearing royal insignia. Such prerogatives, he writes, show that even humble servants of the king "are invested with mysteries," and should be respected accordingly. Medrano observes: In my view, both the counselor and the realm will be fortunate when such a servant and confidant possesses qualities worthy of the royal station they serve, especially when their innate nobility and virtues align with the dignity required for such a role. Where noble lineage and habit join with noble actions, there can be no doubt of their merit. And when this is accompanied by piety, goodness, and holiness—as we see, experience, and witness in our time—such virtue indeed stands as a model worthy of our admiration and emulation, does it not? In República Mista, Medrano contemplates the mortality of even the greatest monarchies, emphasizing the need for prayer and moral vigilance. Within this reflection, he elevates Philip III of Spain as a living embodiment of Christian kingship, whose reign aligns with divine order and the spiritual duties of sovereign rule. Medrano presents Philip as a king whose holiness is evident in his adherence to divine law and his appointment of virtuous and devout magistrates. His valor, though not expressed through personal combat, is manifest in his strategic leadership, having assembled a powerful fleet and army that defended the realm without bloodshed. His magnanimity is marked by clemency toward those he might have punished, fulfilling the counsel of Saint Isidore, who taught that just rulers must know when to defer judgment in favor of mercy. Justice, too, defines his reign, as Philip personally traversed his dominions to hear and resolve the grievances of his subjects. His prudence is demonstrated by a voluntary retreat from the distractions of the hunt and the pursuit of military glory, choosing instead a path of stable and attentive governance. Finally, Medrano praises the king's compassion, particularly in his refusal to wage war against the French despite political opportunity, an act inspired by the counsel of Pope Clement VIII and rooted in the conviction that power must never corrupt the gentle spirit. Through this portrait, Medrano casts Philip III not merely as a political figure, but as an exemplar of sacred monarchy, whose virtues affirm the doctrinal and moral precepts articulated throughout the first volume of the República Mista. Virtuous rulers and obedient subjects Tacitus' wisdom, "Semper alicui potentium invisus, non culpa, sed ut flagitiorum impatiens" ("He who is hated by the powerful is not guilty, but impatient of their crimes"), guides Medrano's counsel: those who cannot tolerate injustice may find themselves resented at court and should avoid its intrigues for a more peaceful life. "It is very dangerous to skin a lion." He lauds princes who, like Alexander the Great, refused to punish those who insulted them, choosing to live virtuously and correct falsehood with example. "Posterity, and a glorious remembrance of oneself, well deserved," Tacitus wrote, Medrano holds this as the supreme goal of princely rule. He cites Emperor Theodosius, who refused to punish those who insulted the government, urging compassion even toward malice, and commanding that no judge act unless ordered by the emperor himself. As Lipsius warned, "Not all rulers are Alexanders." Yet the best defense against criticism is to give the people no reason to murmur. "The one who disregards fame clearly values virtue lightly." He quotes Solomon: "Nomen impiorum putrescet (The name of the wicked will rot.)" Writers may not harm rulers in life, but they tarnish them in memory. Medrano concludes with Tacitus: False honor helps, and false infamy terrifies. Believe us to be just as our reputation is. Ultimately, Medrano codifies theological and philosophical precepts to provide a doctrine grounded in obedience that is divinely ordained, as the law itself flows from the unity of God. == Book three: justice ==

The third book in the first volume of the República Mista, which begins on page 111, titled On the Third Point of the Roman Ambassador, codifies the fundamental role of justice in sustaining a republic. Medrano opens with Erasmus' maxim, "Respublica, duabus rebus continetur praemio, poena"–"A republic is held together by two things: reward and punishment." Medrano begins his third chapter as follow: I shall treat here of that element, rule, commandment, law, and particular custom, that enabled the Romans to govern their republic effectively for so long. I align myself with justice, for it seems to me that justice is the force at the heart of this accomplishment. Justice, Medrano affirms, is both divine and societal: the "bond of human society" and the precept that distinguishes good from evil. Without it, confusion and vice prevail: "To reward evil in place of good, to oppress the good without punishing the wicked, this is to confuse vice with virtue." Justice, he writes, reveals "the distinction between the good and the bad," serving as both divine law and the "bond of human society." Drawing on classical authorities, he defines justice as inseparable from wisdom. Plato teaches that no state can endure without justice and divine counsel. Aristotle calls it a "general virtue," containing all others, and Solomon asks God for wisdom alone, recognizing that "there can be no justice without prudence." Medrano calls prudence "a firm pillar, strong foundation, and sure guide of all a prince's enterprises." Justice requires temperance, courage, and charity. A just ruler must resist ambition and passion, and defend the oppressed even at personal cost. "Justice instills strength and courage," allowing the ruler to approach "the divine nature." Medrano insists that faith depends on justice, warning that without it, power is reduced to mere force. He condemns those political theorists who advocate: "Neglect all that is right and good so long as it may grow their power." Medrano draws on Cicero again to define justice as "the constant and perpetual will to give each their due." It is the duty of princes, magistrates, and counselors to uphold this precept impartially. Diogenes called justice the source of "peace and perpetual happiness," while Hesiod described it as a "chaste, venerable virgin," and Pindar as "the queen of the world." Pythagoras, more enigmatically, wrote: "The balance never tips." For Medrano, justice must transcend kinship, wealth, or personal benefit. Citing Plato, he writes: As Plato advises, we should make no distinction among men for friendship, kinship, wealth, or dignity. This virtue requires that we set aside personal pleasures and private benefits to embrace the public good, even if it be to our detriment, and it teaches that those who govern well prohibit anything doubtful, whether it is just or not. For equity is by nature so clear and resplendent that where doubt exists, we can be assured that injustice is near. Medrano defends true nobility as rooted in virtue, not lineage alone: to honor the corrupt sons of noble fathers is to shame the ancestors themselves. He invokes the words of Mattathias: "Be zealous for the law and give your lives for the testament of your fathers," reminding nobles of their duty to emulate their forebears: If there is anything good in nobility, it is that it places a certain necessity upon nobles to imitate their predecessors. He affirms that this is clearly seen in empire. Medrano offers a reflection on the endurance of empires, "which, though they reach their peak of perfection, inevitably decline and weaken over time." Sæpe impotentia regum, quia quod non potest, vult posse (Often the weakness of kings lies in their desire to achieve what is beyond their power). Many times, due to their impotence, kings wish to do what they cannot, which ultimately brings them ruin, either by internal discord or external force. No empire, kingdom, or republic, however well-ordered, can avoid such a fate, as its strength wanes with time. Hence, to preserve a state, it is essential to guide public affairs toward their foundational precepts, employing the same means with which they were established. For Disciplina maiorum rempublicam tenet, quæ si dilabatur, et nomen Hispanum, Imperium amittemus (The discipline of our ancestors sustains the republic, which, if it dissolves, and we lose the Spanish name, we will also lose the empire.) He praises the governance of Philip III, asserting that the flourishing (medrar) of the monarchy rests upon virtuous rulers, obedient subjects, the administration of justice, and the preservation of the Catholic faith: If all successors were as virtuous as the original founders, and if they held the same careful vigilance that our current kings, especially the present one, exercise over the expansion and preservation of the Catholic faith, and if their subjects demonstrated the obedience and reverence we now see, with ministers administering justice well, and with military discipline flourishing Ex cuius sinu omnes triumphi manarunt (From whose bosom all triumphs have flowed) as I address in more detail elsewhere, these are the very things that have raised our monarchy to its current stature. There is no doubt that if God (to whom all is subject) preserves, grows, and strengthens it to the end of time, we can hope this will indeed come to pass, as long as it does not stray from this path. He quotes Cicero: "Finally, true justice and honest labor are adorned with honors, rewards, and splendor, while the vices and deceits of men are punished with losses, shame, chains, scourges, exile, and death." Medrano completes his first treatise with a quote on justice: The truth of justice indeed requires that the wicked receive evil, and the good receive good. == Publication ==

In 1601, Tomás authorized his son, Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval, to initiate the process of presenting the first volume of the República Mista to the Royal Council and Philip III of Spain for official publication in Madrid. República Mista was printed on the royal press and published in Madrid by Juan Flamenco in 1602 by royal decree. Approval by the Chief Chronicler of Castile approved República Mista on 30 August 1601. In Valladolid on 30 August 1601, República Mista was approved by Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, the historian, writer and Chief Chronicler of Castile and the Americas during the reigns of Philip II and Philip III: By order of Your Excellency, I have reviewed the book titled On the Three Precepts that the Ambassador of the Romans Gave to King Ptolemy Regarding the Good Governance of His Republic, brought to light by Don Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval of the Lords of Valdeosera. It seems to me that the subject matter is very useful and beneficial, full of good teachings, examples, and history. Your Excellency, if served by it, may grant the requested license for its printing.Medrano's son, Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval, presented his father's treatise to the Royal Council of Castile alongside the original manuscript for verification and pricing. Recognizing its significance, King Philip III of Spain issued a royal decree authorizing its publication. In Valladolid, on 25 September 1601, the king and royal council granted him the license and faculty to print his father's treatise, throughout all the Kingdoms of Castile, commanding the Council and all justices to observe and execute this decree and its doctrinal contents. Approval for sale by the Secretary of the Chamber of His Majesty In Valladolid, the treatise received permission for sale on 5 March 1602, granted by Juan Gallo de Andrada, Secretary of the Chamber of His Majesty: I, Juan Gallo de Andrada, Secretary of the Chamber of His Majesty and member of His Council, certify that... The First Part of the Mixed Republic... was priced at three maravedis per sheet... with twenty-one sheets, the total price was set at sixty-three maravedis... to be sold in paper... this pricing be placed at the beginning of the book and... cannot be sold without it... Valladolid, on the fifth of March, 1602. == Critical analysis ==

República Mista has received sustained scholarly interest, from its favorable reception under Philip III to modern analysis, with Miguel Herrero García expanding on the king's summary through a detailed examination of the work's structure and classical foundations: The author presents all political doctrine within a fictional narrative reminiscent of the old Spanish literature with Arabic influences. In this invention, the King Ptolemy of Egypt is depicted conversing at length with seven ambassadors from the most flourishing states of the time: Rome, Carthage, Sicily, Rhodes, Athens, Sparta, and Sicyon. Each ambassador outlines the three main precepts of their country's political system. The author concludes that if the twenty-one political precepts practiced by the Romans, Carthaginians, Sicilians, Rhodians, Athenians, Spartans, and Sicyonians were mixed or combined, the result would be a mixed republic, or rather, a combined political system that would yield optimal results. The book in our possession only discusses the three precepts of Roman politics, as presented by the fictional Roman ambassador: 'We have great respect and veneration for temples and the homeland. We obediently follow the mandates of our governors and magistrates. We reward the good and punish the wicked severely.' Despite its title, the treatise did not advocate for a constitutional, absolute, or limited monarchy. Instead, Medrano defended divine kingship and delegated authority, presenting the role of the favorite not as a threat but as a functional extension of the sovereign's will. His model of a mixed republic was ultimately one of undivided sovereignty with executive functions delegated to a powerful minister (valido) when required. While Medrano acknowledged that such a figure should act within the bounds of the law and under the prince's authority, in practice, he was describing a delegated authority that validos like Lerma exercised in early 17th-century Spain. == Doctrine of Medrano ==

, lord of Valdeosera, brought to publication by his son Juan Fernández de Medrano y Sandoval on the royal press in Madrid with approval from the Council of Castile. The República Mista (1602), written by Tomás Fernández de Medrano, lord of Valdeosera, dedicated to the 1st valido, and published on the royal press in Madrid by decree of Philip III with approval from the Council of Castile, joins a corpus of works that codified political, legal, moral, and theological doctrine compiled and harmonized by the Medrano family in various statutes, laws, reforms, academies, and treatises. It was enacted in the most powerful judicial bodies, including the Council of the Military Orders, and the Real Audiencia y Chancillería de Valladolid, where successive members of the Medrano family served as councilors, oidores, fiscales, and magistrates. According to the República Mista, kingship in the Spanish monarchy is understood as an office ordered toward the well-being and shared prosperity (medrar) of the community, exercised as justice through the person of the king and those to whom he delegates authority, rather than for private advantage. , Bishop of Ourense, Captain General and Governor of the Kingdom of Galicia. One example of such delegated governance was Diego Ros de Medrano, Governor Captain General of the Kingdom of Galicia, Doctor of Theology, professor at the Colegio Mayor de San Ildefonso, Canon of the Magistral Church of St. Justo, "whose fame and apostolic calling led him to renounce" promotions to richer and more powerful sees such as León, Plasencia, and Santiago, choosing instead to remain "in favor of apostolic poverty" as Bishop of the Diocese of Ourense. Medrano affirms that throughout nature there exists an inherent delegation of command and obedience, from the heavens to human communities, and that political authority mirrors this divine structure. For this reason, he identifies religion as the principal foundation of republics, of obedience to laws and magistrates, of respect for rulers, and of justice itself, from which all legitimate governance and prosperity must proceed. The República Mista codifies obedience to God as fundamental to kings, councils, and magistrates, who are recognized as the "image of God" on earth. Philip III's continuity of ecclesiastical instruction and dynastic formation upheld the tradition that religious leaders, as representives of the ecclesiastical state, held foundational authority in the councils of the Spanish monarchy. Diego presents this same approach as a deliberate method that gathers examples for imitation and warning, examines the condition of past and present, and applies judgment to correct errors and guide conduct, demonstrating continuity between established historiographical practice and its later doctrinal expression in the Mirror of Princes. This is followed by a maxim on reform and medrar (virtuous advancement for the common good): He who stumbles but does not fall advances on his way. He who sins and then mends his ways entrusts himself to God. For, as Scripture says: Humanum est errare; sed ferinum et diabolicum perseverare in errare. (To err is human; but to persist in error is beastly and diabolical.) retains the ancient coat of arms of Andrés Vélaz de Medrano on the keystone of its horseshoe doorway with crosses of Saint Andrew and the goshawk on his hand still visible. With the approval of the king of Pamplona in the early 11th century, construction of the Palace of Vélaz de Medrano began. The palace features a water conduit supporting a pilgrim hospital that belonged the Order of St. John, a horseshoe arched doorway, and Andres Vélaz de Medrano's coat of arms on its keystone: a goshawk on his hand with the Ave Maria and eight crosses of Saint Andrew. Andrés's direct descendant and heir, Juan Vélaz de Medrano, lord of Igúzquiza, alcaide of Monjardin and Viana, great-grandson of Juan Martínez de Medrano, regent of Navarre, judge of the Cortes, became royal chamberlain to the king Charles III and king John II, and went on a royal pilgrimage to the Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar alongside Queen Blanche I of Navarre in 1433. In addition to Igúzquiza, and as a ricohombre of Navarre, Juan Vélaz de Medrano held the lordships of Arguiñano, Arzoz, Artazu, Zabal, and Orendáin. In 1437, he exemplified the act of medrar by uniting these lordships into the mayorazgo of Vélaz de Medrano, the oldest documented hereditary majorat in Viana. The continuity of Andrés' Vélaz de Medrano's lineage was reaffirmed in 1682, when Antonio Vélaz de Medrano, having submitted proof of his descent from Andrés and of his own service before the Council of Castile, was granted the title Marquess of Tabuérniga de Vélazar by King Charles II. In his 1492 Latin-Spanish dictionary, Antonio de Nebrija defined medrar as Proficio: "to make progress." Pedro Felipe Monlau viewed it as related to mejorar, from the Latin melior ("better"), while Joan Corominas traced the early form medranza, meaning "hereditary improvement," to a 1076 context tied to noble succession. Ramón Menéndez Pidal identified Medrano as a surname historically linked to noble service and legitimate advancement and prosperity. This etymology shows that hereditary improvement, advancement, growth, and prosperity formed the linguistic and genealogical basis for medrar as a doctrine transmitted across dynasties and institutions. He presents medrar as the normative pattern of advancement in ordered society, tied to honorable company, not personal gain: Medrar is a virtue of great value. Success is dependent upon medrar. I sought good company and sought to be among the fellowship of gentlemen. '' (1554) (Pictured: Its title page) Medro is illustrated in Picaresque novels and comedia, and represents self-serving ambition, flattery, corruption, deceit, and opportunism. Medro is completely detached from merit, delegation, and divine order. Her rise reflected deliberate intellectual formation from childhood, a core precept later codified in República Mista. Rightly ordered counsel and the true measure of prosperity (Medrar) Tomás Fernández de Medrano uses Philip III's campaign in Algiers to demonstrate that true prosperity (medrar) is grounded in prudent and righteous counsel, not in visible gain or loss: Who could deny that, as we have seen in both ancient and modern times, no endeavor has been more prudently or providently undertaken than the great task now before us in Algiers? Although it is one of the most costly and challenging ventures, every part and circumstance of its undertaking, guided by wisdom, brings glory to our most illustrious king and to those close to him. It appears destined for success, even with the uncertainties of war.Others, including Ignacio de Loyola y Oyanguren and the Marquess of La Olmeda, praised Phelipe's contribution to truth and Christian arithmetic. Diego de Medrano y Treviño recognized that a sincere desire for good could lead judgment astray, and that patriotic love might give rise to hopes so uncertain that even their path to fulfillment remained unclear. Still, he affirmed that good intentions excuse errors, and that if the expression of such intentions inspired wiser and more capable individuals to correct those errors with sound measures, it would not be the first time that "the boldness of the ignorant awakened the zeal of the wise." Early codifications include the 1330 reform of the Fueros of Navarre by Juan Martínez de Medrano, regent of the Kingdom of Navarre, alongside his son Álvaro Díaz de Medrano; With the approval granted to them by Monarchs, Emperors, and Popes, the House of Medrano maintained consistent roles to codify, enact, and refine doctrine: • codified by Tomás Fernández de Medrano in his República Mista (1602), dedicated to Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas, 1st Duke of Lerma, 1st valido (royal favorite) of Spain. • Defended in the 18th century by Jaime Vélaz de Medrano y Barros, III Marquess of Tabuérniga, through his 1730 Representación to Prince Ferdinand (the future Ferdinand VI) and enacted in the form of a diplomatic mission from London to meet Sebastián de la Cuadra Medrano y Llarena, first secretary of state for Ferdinand VI, and secure a peace treaty on behalf of England and Spain, as he pledged in London to both the Prince of Wales and King George II in an attempt to end the War of Jenkins' Ear. • Preserved by Fernando Vélaz de Medrano y Bracamonte, 4th Marquess of Tabuérniga, Grandee of Spain, through his letters to Charles, Prince of Asturias, upholding the Doctrine of Medrano during the fiscal Bourbon Reforms. His denouncement of corruption in the Americas and Europe came from a result of unjust ministers, and was exiled by José de Galvez, minister of the Indies, for appealing to the conscience of Prince Charles. • Codified and refined into civic doctrine and public institutions by Diego de Medrano y Treviño, Minister of the Interior of Spain (1835), Civil Governor of the Province of Ciudad-Real (1834–1835). Diego wrote a legal-political treatise titled Consideraciones (1843), which affirmed true progress and prosperity (medrar) as a civic and moral foundation for all of Spain and the Province of Ciudad Real. The Spanish court treated him with the honors of a Habsburg prince. Upon his death in 1624, Philip IV ordered his burial in the royal pantheon of El Escorial with the rites of an infante. His descendants in Guatemala used the Medrano surname in official records, establishing it as a hereditary marker. Cabrillo de Medrano's grandson, Esteban de Medrano y Solórzano, claimed descent as heir of the conquistador and served as regidor and royal chancellor of the Real Audiencia of Santiago de Guatemala in 1670. As Philibert was doctrinally identified as "of Austria" through courtly and ecclesiastical mediation, Cabrillo's heirs were incorporated "of Medrano," through institutional office and genealogical affirmation, allowing their descendants to medraron within the laws of advancement. In 1304, Rodrigo Ibáñez de Medrano, then precentor of the Cathedral of Pamplona, contested the Bishopric of Pamplona but ultimately withdrew his claim in 1308 before his death. Around the same time, Andrés Ruiz de Medrano served as Prior of Roncesvalles, the gateway to the Camino de Santiago, until 1321. Ecclesiastical authority and Medrano patronage of the Order of St. John persisted across centuries later in Tomás Fernández de Medrano, patron of the nuns convent of San Juan de Acre in Salinas de Añana and author of the 1605 papal legal defense of the Order of St. John's privileges. This governance extended into ecclesiastical and juridical offices, including the Real Audiencias, through inquisitors and magistrates such as Juan Antonio de Medrano, fiscal of the Royal Council of Navarre, and Alonso Molina de Medrano, Councilor of Castile, the Indies, and Finance. The Bourbon princes Ferdinand VI and Charles III received the doctrine through Giovanni Antonio Medrano, their personal tutor. In the Royal Council's, it was enacted by ministers and councilors such as Francisco de Medrano y Bazán, Minister in the Royal Council of Castile, García de Medrano, 1st Count of Torrubia, Councilor of the Chamber of His Majesty, Andrés de Medrano y Mendizábal, 2nd Count of Torrubia, Dean of the Royal Council of Castile, and Baltasar Álvarez de Medrano, Minister of the Council of Finance. In the Americas, the Doctrine of Medrano was enacted by governors Juan de Medrano y Mesía, Diego Fernández de Medrano y Zapata, lord of Regajal, and by Diego's great-grandson Gabino Gaínza Fernández de Medrano, who declared a peaceful independence for Central America on 15 September 1821. This act unified five nations under a single republic by means of the Plan Pacífico, establishing an independent Central American government under the leadership of Gaínza Fernández de Medrano. The Doctrine of Medrano in the republic of the Indigenous Americans Recent scholarship from Cambridge University has affirmed that early modern governance in the Americas operated through multiple republics functioning within a unified imperial structure. with a united coat of arms of the Espinosa (1st quarter) and Medrano family (2nd quarter) on the top left. This juridical republic was doctrinally substantiated by Juan de Espinosa Medrano's scholastic defense of universal essences and legitimate delegation, integrating both Castilian and Indigenous republics into a single juridical and philosophical system. Juan de Espinosa Medrano, chaplain to Luis Méndez de Haro, valido of Philip IV, served as priest of Cuzco. Although often mislabeled as criollo, he was a nobleman by lineage, of Indigenous heritage, educated and ordained in Cuzco. He advanced the Ibero-American intellectual tradition in both political doctrine and literary theology. A playwright and polyglot, Juan de Espinosa Medrano translated Virgil into Quechua. His Philosophia Thomistica (1688) defended the doctrine in scholastic form, combining Aristotelian logic with Platonic metaphysics. He defended Plato's theory of ideas as "species and universal essences," an original and rare position in seventeenth-century Second Scholasticism. Responding to Justus Lipsius, he cited Jerónimo de Valera: God is so powerful that He can raise children of Abraham from Peruvian stones. This positioned Andean learning within the universal system of the Doctrine of Medrano, applicable in both Europe and the Americas. Juan Martínez de Medrano 'The Elder': delegated authority and early codifications in the Kingdom of Navarre (1328–1330) for nearly a year to represent the Kingdom of Navarre, exercising delegated authority in a realm that had no king. One of the earliest examples of medrar and the doctrine occurred in the Kingdom of Navarre. In 1328, Juan Martínez de Medrano, baron of Sartaguda, Arróniz, Villatuerta, and alcaide of Viana, was elected regent of Navarre during the interregnum following the death of Charles IV of France, the last king of the senior Capetian line. For nearly a year, in a kingdom without a king, he exercised regal and delegated authority with the consent of the Cortes, towns, and nobility. Using the Medrano family seal in place of the absent royal one, he made visible delegated authority later codified in the República Mista. He imposed loyalty oaths, confirmed the succession of Joan II and Philip of Évreux, reformed taxation, modernized the judiciary, and represented Navarre diplomatically before France and Rome. His acts anticipate the eight royal Regalia codified by Tomás in his República Mista. Their reform preserved institutional continuity in Navarre while placing royal power under covenant with the fueros. To confront this claim, Diego López de Medrano y Hurtado de Mendoza, Lord of Agoncillo, lawyer, ambassador, and High Steward (mayordomo mayor) to the king, was sent in 1386 as principal envoy. Accompanied by Prior Juan de Serrano and Doctor Álvar Martínez de Villareal, he appeared in formal audience before the Duke of Lancaster and the assembled English nobility. From this marriage was born John II of Castile. Upon the death of Henry III in 1406, the kingdom again faced uncertainty during the king's minority. The royal testament divided authority between the queen, Catherine of Lancaster, and the Infante Ferdinand of Antequera, while assigning custody of the young king to appointed guardians. The Castilian ambassador's enactment of religion, obedience, and justice as governing precepts in diplomacy preserved not only the peace of the moment but the continuity of the royal line. From John II of Castile descended Isabella I of Castile, under whom the crown was united and strengthened, and whose daughter Joanna of Castile carried that inheritance into the House of Habsburg. The journey was designed to present Philip to the courts, cities, and powers of Europe as the heir to Charles V's vast empire. His brother Francisco de Medrano served as accountant and royal treasurer to Prince Charles, son of Philip II. As a knight of Santiago, he served the king as a general of the Spanish, Neapolitan, and Portuguese galleys. By securing the beachhead, landing the tercios, and holding the coastal approaches, Diego de Medrano assured Spain's victory and paved the way for Portugal's final incorporation under Philip II, known as the Iberian Union. Through this union, Philip II of Spain became "Don Philippe, by the grace of God, King of Portugal and of the Algarves, on this side and beyond the sea, in Africa Lord of Guinea, and of the Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." Diego was informed by the Marqués de Santa Cruz, Álvaro de Bazán, that Philip II appointed him to take charge of the galleys on this expedition to England. Speaking directly to Philip II, Diego de Medrano listed his campaigns, his duty to guard the Strait of Gibraltar, and oversee the construction of the Port of Gibraltar, among many other acts of service, merit, obedience, and justice, precepts codified in his brother's República Mista. The Ordenações Filipinas were printed in 1603 and formally enacted under Philip III, just one year after the publication of the República Mista, making the preamble and the treatise alike a legal and chronological precursor to his decree. For Philip II and his adviser Tomás, the doctrine binding kings to divine law in life was ritually affirmed in death. Through this understanding, mortality became a cornerstone of spiritual humility and royal governance in the Spanish monarchy. The meeting with the Doge was remembered in Tuscany as the occasion when the young Prince Francesco de' Medici greeted Philip on his first Italian visit, and the subject itself reappeared in the funeral decor for Francesco I. Scholars have suggested that this canvas, like others, may have been reused for Philip II's own esequie. By staging these scenes alongside the rites, the obsequies bookended Philip's reign. They recalled his early journey to Italy in 1548, undertaken with Diego López de Medrano, his chief equerry (caballerizo mayor), and concluded with Tomás Fernández de Medrano's final oration. As Francisco Javier Fortún Pérez de Ciriza notes, such arrangements reflected circuits of delegated power, patronage, and doctrine that foreshadowed the later Habsburg model of the valido (royal favourite). As Ángel Campos-Perales observes, medrar became the operative verb of court society, shaping both careers and life cycles through visibility, favor, and proximity. A protégé of Francisco de Sandoval, Duke of Lerma and the first valido, Alonso advanced (medrar) from professor at the University of Seville and Inquisitor in Zaragoza and Córdoba to Councilor of the Indies (1592), first Chamberlain of the Chamber of the Indies (1600), Councilor of Castile (1608–1616), and member of the Board of Finance for the Indies and Portugal. Acting under Lerma's delegated authority and as a knight of Santiago, he administered precepts and mechanisms of governance that combined inquisitorial jurisdiction, colonial administration, and royal finance. His advancement illustrates how García de Medrano's statute codifies delegated authority and transforms the Order's service into institutionalized trust, providing the knights a legal and virtuous form of advancement (medrar) through delegated and divine jurisdiction under God, united by the divine precepts of religion, obedience, and justice under binding Apostolic and Royal law. His position placed him within the central governing body responsible for supervising tribunals, determining causes, and advising on matters of doctrine and administration. As one of the Castilian counselors, he contributed to the integration of royal jurisdiction with the authority of the Holy Office, participating directly in the decisions through which both were exercised. Several officials identified in the mid-seventeenth century Council of the Inquisition, including Cristóbal de Moscoso y Córdoba, Luis Chirinos de Salazar, Lorenzo de Sotomayor, and Francisco Esteban del Vado, are expressly described as knights of the Order of Santiago. As active officeholders within the governing system established after the reforms of 1605, they operated under the codified statutes of García de Medrano, demonstrating the presence of the reformed Order within the central administrative and judicial structures of the Monarchy. García's first cousin, Diego López de Medrano, served as caballerizo mayor to prince philip (the future Philip II), and alcaide of Aranjuez, the seat of the Mesa Maestra, the Order's governing body since the thirteenth century. Their great-grandfather Diego López de Medrano y Vergara, lord of San Gregorio, ricohombre of Castile, and a councilor of the Catholic Monarchs, fought and died for Queen Isabel I in the siege of Malaga (1487). This reform was completed by Garcia in 1604 and published posthumously in 1605, when Philip III, acting by royal decree and Apostolic authority, ordered their compilation and formal confirmation of Medrano's doctrinal reform of Santiago. The compilation incorporated statutes approved from the Chapter of Mérida (1387) through Écija-Seville (1501–1502), unifying centuries of law under a codified doctrine of governance in the Holy Military Order of Santiago. In the Rule and Establishments (1603) Philip III's decree described the reform of Santiago and explained that its purpose was to preserve the Orders and strive for them to grow (medrar) in religion and virtue: To maintain as we do in their administration, care of the spiritual and temporal; and being as they are Religious Orders... it is of greater service to our Lord to preserve them in their good state and strive for them to grow in virtue and religion. Two years later the king ordered the observance of the Rule and Establishments and the Capitular Laws throughout the kingdom, issued in Valladolid on 15 January 1605, authenticated by Francisco González de Heredia and verified by Gregorio de Tapia on 4 February. The statutory reform directly reinforced the theological and philosophical doctrine codified in the República Mista (1602), Philip III's kingship, the valimiento system, the Catholic Reformation, Madrid-Rome ties, and delegated authority throughout the Spanish Empire and its principal holy military Order. Enacted by Charles II of Spain on 4 November 1666 following a decree issued on 27 August 1665 by Philip IV of Spain, the reform was designed and implemented by García de Medrano y Álvarez de los Ríos, a senior jurist of the Royal Council of Castile and the son of García de Medrano y Castejón, reformer of the Order of Santiago. García's statutes addressed absenteeism, corruption, and moral decline with a comprehensive code regulating elections, lectures, residence, and governance. His reform at the Colegio Mayor de San Ildefonso corrected some of the university's traditional autonomy, long supported by the Catholic Church, by asserting Crown control over appointments and admissions, traditionally dominated by the individual interests of the clergy and local elites. García's doctrinal reform in 1666 sat at the intersection of delegated authority, royal power, legal rigor, and educational governance in seventeenth-century Spain. Between 1663 and 1668, as Visitador General by royal commission, García unified the colleges of Tuy, Vizcaínos, and Verdes under uniform constitutions. Acting as heir and patron of their founders, García de Medrano transformed fragmented noble foundations into a unified system of merit-based fellowships. Authority proceeded from the Crown through legally constituted visitation and statute, while remaining constrained by foundational constitutions, religious obligation, and the maintenance of justice. Founded in 1675 at the request of the 9th Duke of Villahermosa, governor and captain general of the Spanish Netherlands, Medrano's academy is widely regarded as the first modern military and mathematical institution in Europe. He was supported by the kings delegates, such as Captain General and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, Francisco Antonio de Agurto y Salcedo Medrano, 1st Marquess of Gastañaga, The 9th Duke explains to the king that many have become very proficient in the understanding of the arts that make a soldier capable in his profession, "the proof of having already sent some engineers to other armies," including England and the Holy Roman Empire. Sebastián Fernández de Medrano's works became the official military doctrine of Spain and the Spanish Netherlands. Preserving this legacy of Brussels for posterity, the Spanish historian, Serafín María de Sotto, 3rd Count of Clonard, wrote: The Spanish can rightly claim the glory of having advanced in the science of war more than the rest of cultured Europe. Sebastián Fernández de Medrano and Joseph Ferdinand, Electoral Prince of Bavaria (1694–1699) and Mars offering the Doctrine of Medrano to Joseph Ferdinand, Prince of Bavaria. From El Ingeniero Práctico (1696), dedicated to Joseph Ferdinand by Sebastián Fernández de Medrano. In 1694, a letter to Charles II by Maximilian II Emanuel requested recognition and royal favor of Sebastián Fernández de Medrano's service, confirming that the king is aware of his merit through the reports of the kings generals and the very effects "that his ingenuity and application have benefited the Royal service." Joseph Ferdinand was grandchild of Emperor Leopold I and of Margaret Theresa, Charles II's sister. In 1696, Sebastián Fernández de Medrano composed a sonnet of dedication, portraying the prince as a sovereign in doctrinal formation two years prior to the will of Charles II. He offered the treatise as a gift for the rightful successor to the Spanish Empire: To the Most Serene Lord Joseph Ferdinand, Electoral Prince of Bavaria, a gift such as this my pen dares to offer. It is from Pallas, this burning Architecture, O Prince, Mars himself safeguards it. The Region is vast and far-reaching, to raise up Bavaria to such height, that the whole world may find it without peer. Joseph Ferdinand's formation by doctrine represents a formal transmission of Medrano led instruction at the highest level of dynastic succession prior to the War of the Spanish Succession. Andrés de Medrano y Mendizábal, 2nd Count of Torrubia, became Dean of the Royal Council of Castile in 1697, ensuring a smooth transition into the Bourbon era. The Rise of the Bourbon dynasty and the education of the Bourbon Princes The Bourbon succession of Felipe de Borbón y Baviera as Philip V was accompanied by the strict education of his sons, the Bourbon princes, under the personal direction of Giovanni Antonio Medrano (Juan Fernández de Medrano), who joined the regiment of Sebastián's protégé Jorge Próspero de Verboom in his early career. This continuous transmission of doctrine through Giovanni prepared the Bourbon princes for sacred kingship in Naples, Sicily, and the Spanish Empire. Continuity and protection of Medrano's military and scientific doctrine in the Bourbon era In 1700, Sebastián Fernández de Medrano dedicated El architecto perfecto en el arte militar to Luis Francisco de la Cerda, 9th Duke of Medinaceli, commander of the Order of Santiago; Chamberman of the Chamber to Charles II and Philip V; tutor of the Prince of Asturias (future Louis I) in 1709. In the dedication, Sebastián Fernández de Medrano invoked noble patronage as a guarantor of doctrinal legitimacy: From the moment I took up the pen, I resolved to expand anew with fresh instructions the doctrine which is the subject of the contents of this volume, which comes to light under the protection of the sacred authority of Your Excellency, so that with such privilege it might run safely from all censure. Medrano personally designed the curriculum for Barcelona's new academy which shaped later royal academies at Oran and Ceuta, directly influencing the early organization of the Spanish Corps of Engineers in 1711 established by his protégé Jorge Próspero de Verboom, 1st Marquess of Verboom, Following the Battle of Ramillies (1706), the academy ceased operations but continued in the next generation of military academies. He was celebrated by contemporaries and hailed by Alonso de Castillo Solórzano as "the prince of the most renowned Academy Madrid ever had." Married to the famous actress Jusepa Vaca, known as la Gallarda, Morales Medrano directed his own company almost continuously from 1601 to 1631 and became one of the most recognized theatrical figures of the early seventeenth century. Their troupe performed for the Prince of Wales and appeared in Corpus Christi celebrations sixteen times from 1604 onward across Seville, Madrid, Toledo, Medina de Rioseco and Valencia, performing in major urban centres. In the Apologético, Espinosa Medrano united scholastic rigor with baroque literary culture, drawing on classical and modern sources including Tertullian, Apuleius, Saint Jerome, Galileo Galilei, and Justus Lipsius. The conflict reached formal resolution in 1598 when Henry IV, now a Catholic king, issued the Edict of Nantes, granting defined liberties to the Huguenots while maintaining the juridical supremacy of Catholic legitimacy. Henry IV's coronation at Chartres on 27 February 1594, and papal absolution on 17 September 1595 completed the juridical and ecclesial recognition of his delegated authority under God the Father, mediated through Christ His Son and the Catholic Church. Though some Protestant allies were alienated, the conversion consolidated Catholic loyalty and stabilized the French monarchy. Tomas Fernández de Medrano's 1605 papal legal brief defending the privileges the Order of St. John of Jerusalem , who personally commissioned Tomás Fernández de Medrano and sanctioned his 1605 legal brief defending and confirming the Order of Saint John's privileges. In 1602, the República Mista had already strengthened Madrid-Rome ties and asserted Philip III's kingship as obedient to God, reinforcing his religious legitimacy before the papacy. Military orders acted as intermediaries in disputes among European powers, using their religious authority and political neutrality to facilitate negotiations and promote peace. as a Knight of St. John, Tomás's commission occurred during the escalating conflict between Paul V and the Republic of Venice, whose laws restricting ecclesiastical property and jurisdiction provoked a major diplomatic crisis. Philip III supported the Papacy against Venice, raising an army of 26,000. Mediation by Henry IV of France resolved the crisis in 1607, reaffirming that no citizen was exempt from ordinary legal process while preserving the essential rights of the church. The Knights of St. John, under the authority of the Pope, held large estates throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, deriving income from agriculture, commerce, and rents. This corruption was explicitly condemned by Jaime Vélaz de Medrano y Barros, III Marquess of Tabuérniga de Vélazar, Lieutenant of the Royal Spanish Guards, who intended to submit his doctrinal memorandum to Prince Ferdinand (the future Ferdinand VI) warning of institutional decline, however he was arrested after leaving the Seville Cathedral before he could deliver the 19-page handwritten letter. Plan Pacifico grounds the new Central American government in the precept of religion: "in the name of the Supreme Being." Article 1 preserved the precept of obedience through legitimate delegation, since the people chose, "of our own free will and general consent," Gaínza Fernández de Medrano, "our current interim leader." Medrano explains that this system inspires even the humblest citizens to serve the common good: Those who are poor or of humble status, with the hope of ennobling themselves and advancing, are motivated to perform marvels in service of the republic, just as I have seen the poorest soldiers, often regarded as ragged, perform. In his submission of 13 April 1676, Antonio Vélaz de Medrano recalled the deeds of his forefathers, including his progenitor in Igúzquiza, Andrés Vélaz de Medrano, and summarized his own service to the king as governor of Nieuwpoort in Flanders, as well as his military service in the wars of Flanders, Catalonia, Extremadura, and Galicia. According to a 2025 study by Cambridge University, in early modern Spain, royal service was regarded as a familial vocation rather than an individual achievement, as loyalty, merit, and royal favor were understood to accumulate across generations, granting officials both the credit and the obligation of their ancestors' service. Through the public dedication to Francisco de Medrano y Bazán's royal office, Mateo de la Bastide joins him in exemplifying the República Mista by Tomás. In rejecting "the cultivation of lies disguised as flattery," they also uphold Diego's Mirror of Princes (1657–1661), while fulfilling the Partidas' precept. His recognition by author, king, and law confirms that the Doctrine of Medrano was reaffirmed and honored in 1662. Kings such as Charles I, Philip II, Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II applied these precepts in practice, selecting officials who embodied the Doctrine of Medrano. Personally chosen by the king "like Gideon," Charles II requested that Diego Ros de Medrano, Bishop or Ourense, restore unity, order, and balance to the kingdom of Galicia, granting him the union of ecclesiastical, military, and civil authority over the region. Diego Ros de Medrano's career under Charles II fulfilled the doctrine's central tenets: advancement (medrar) through service and example, moral integrity, and the exercise of juridical and ecclesiastical responsibility. As captain general and governor of the kingdom of Galicia through royal delegation, his intervention and government directly restored unity, prosperity (medrar), and the three foundational precepts of religion, obedience, and justice to the Galicians. Educated at the Colegio Mayor de San Ildefonso during the reforms of García de Medrano, and later a professor there, he became an exemplar of Medrano's reforms in Ildefonso, ruling from his own cathedra, administering the diocese in delegated pastoral and juridical authority. The divine precepts of religion, obedience, and justice as the foundation of prosperity in the republic In the República Mista, Tomás Fernández de Medrano used the example of Sparta to illustrate why prosperity (medrar) can occur: Someone once asked why Sparta prospered. Was it because the kings knew how to rule? 'No,' came the reply, 'but because the citizens knew how to obey.' Tomás described the unity of a state as the harmony of all its parts under divine and natural law, preventing the abuses of any one group from excessively dominating another, a unity that historically allowed the Spanish Empire to prosper (medrar): Unity in all things sustains a kingdom, and this unity is what has allowed our own to prosper to this day, with honors, public positions, and benefits usually distributed according to each person's status, and each safeguarded with their privileges and preeminence. All due diligence is taken to prevent any one group from excessively dominating another: that the nobility does not trample the common people, nor drive them to despair, and that the people, through their arts, trades, and the positions they hold, do not enrich themselves in ways that harm the nobles. In the República Mista, Tomás codified justice as the divine law that binds humanity to God and one another: Justice reveals the distinction between the good and the bad. It is a divine law and the bond of human society; without it, nothing but confusion can result. To reward the wicked in place of the good, or to afflict the good and leave the wicked unpunished, is to confuse vice with virtue. No monarchy, kingdom, or republic can be properly ruled, governed, or preserved in peace without justice, the counsel of the experienced, and the favor of divine wisdom, for it is through wisdom that we know God and revere Him. From this reverence arises piety, giving wisdom its name. in Pompeii, symbolizing the union of wisdom, justice, and reason later embodied in Medrano counsel. Tomás uses Plato's exemplar of political theology to describe the divine duty of justice and why faith must be upheld by it: The Philosopher calls justice a general virtue, because one who fully possesses it may be said to hold all other virtues as well. Without prudence, one cannot distinguish between justice and injustice... nor fulfill the most divine duty of justice, which is to help the afflicted and oppressed with all one's strength. Faith, the foundation of justice, exists because of justice; if faith were not upheld by justice, who would not deem it legitimate to seize power by any means necessary and to treat dominion as a prize for whomever can take it? If we seek to exercise justice perfectly, as Plato advises, we should make no distinction among men for friendship, kinship, wealth, or dignity. This virtue requires that we set aside private benefit for the public good, even to our own detriment. . Medrano quotes him, saying "Only the fear of God preserves harmony among men." Medrano quotes Lactantius to illustrate corrupt advancement (medro) and affirms that justice is not possible without reverence for God: "Only the fear of God preserves harmony among men. For those who wield weapons, force, and power would often seek to dominate and oppress others... if religion did not restrain such inclinations." Justice is the measure of all political legitimacy. He warns that if the wicked are favored and the virtuous cast aside, hope for prosperity (medrar) fades: "A law is the rule of justice, and justice is the purpose of the law. Cicero says the law is the soul of the republic, the blood that gives it life, and the rule that sustains the state. A republic is close to ruin when those condemned by law are pardoned, and judgments are reversed. When the wicked are favored and the virtuous cast aside, hope for prosperity fades." Medrano strengthened religion as the foundation of all legitimate government, obedience as its form, and justice as its fulfillment. Each precept reinforces the others to maintain political order. He affirms the good will be rewarded, and the wicked will be published. Medrano confirms that the denial of justice has led many princes to their deaths, "as was the case with Philip of Macedonia, who was killed by Pausanias after refusing to address an offense committed by Antipater." Citing Saint Augustine, he declares: Sine iustitia quid sunt regna nisi magna latrocinia? ("Without justice, what are kingdoms but great robberies?") He adds, "Since God is the ultimate author of justice, continually demonstrating it in us through such clear signs, we should neither disregard nor violate it." Those entrusted with "administering justice or appointing others to this role must select people who are fit for such weighty responsibilities, learned and exemplars of good conduct." Tomás Fernández de Medrano teaches that a prince must ensure the Catholic religion is protected and cherished within his realm, for if it is neglected another religion may easily take its place. Once such a religion has taken hold, the prince can no longer freely call himself lord of that province, since he will remain dependent upon it throughout his life. With it, he warns, come license and impiety that foster factions and divisions, ultimately leading to the same destruction observed in other realms. Medrano writes in his República Mista, "if an empire lacks a strong religion, it is impossible for it to be powerful in arms. Without these two things, it must fall. But if they remain united, as they do in this Monarchy, then it will live and stand for a thousand ages." Through his República Mista (1612), Tomás Fernández de Medrano transformed ancient philosophy and political theology into doctrine by codifying religion, obedience, and justice as divine precepts of the state and the laws by which both heaven and society are bound. == Legacy and continuity ==

, where Tomás Fernández de Medrano served as Secretary of State and War to Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy. Long before his República Mista (1602), Tomás Fernández de Medrano, Secretary of the Holy Chapters and Assemblies of Castile, lived at the royal court with Philip II of Spain, directly influencing the Spanish monarchy and its allied courts, demonstrating that the precepts in República Mista were already operating in statecraft and diplomacy before they were ever codified. On 1 August 1591, Medrano was appointed as counselor and Secretary of State and War in the Duchy of Savoy under Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and his consort Princess Catalina Micaela of Spain, daughter of Philip II. Infanta Catalina Micaela, Duchess of Savoy, had previously expressed concern about her husband's actions. Her correspondence, combined with Medrano's discretion, demonstrates the reliance of the Spanish Crown on trusted intermediaries to anticipate royal command and safeguard dynastic stability. The appointment of Medrano as secretary of state and war was a strategic deployment by the Spanish Crown and the duke to ensure loyalty and exercise imperial oversight at a critical dynastic frontier in Savoy. Legacy within the Great Houses of Spain Through Isabel de Sandoval, Medrano's wife, the family secured marital ties with the House of Sandoval, aligning themselves with the valido of Spain, Francisco de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma, and reinforcing their alliances across the other Great Houses of Spain. Through Diego's paternal inheritance, he also bore the title Señor de la Torre y Casa de la Vega en Rioja, directly linking the Medrano family to the historic union between the House of Mendoza and the House of Lasso de la Vega, progenitors of the Constables of Castile, the Marquesses of Santillana, and the Dukes of Infantado. By the seventeenth century, Diego's inheritance of this noble estate affirmed the Medrano family's enduring integration into the highest ranks of Castilian aristocracy, and reinforced the doctrinal authority with which Diego served as chaplain to the valido Luis Méndez de Haro under Philip IV of Spain. According to Luis Núñez Burillo y Ginel de Medrano, a branch of the de Medrano y Mendoza de Borbón family lineage, which included the Counts of Coruña, Dukes of Bourbon (Peers of France), Marquesses of Santillana, and Dukes of Infantado, was renowned for its academic and intellectual achievements. Royal service in the Kingdom of Castile , alcaide of Atienza, maternal great-great-great grandson of Alonso Pérez de Guzmán Tomás Fernández de Medrano's ancestors had lived at court with the Castilian kings for centuries, enacting precepts and doctrine within their delegated roles. Diego López de Medrano, the guardian of King John II of Castile, made his will on 12 November 1434. The branch in Soria was likewise integrated into the 12 lineages of Soria, including marital ties with the House of Barnuevo, binding the Medranos not only to Spain's most powerful noble dynasties but also to the hereditary guardians of Castilian lineage. Tomás Fernández de Medrano was also the relative of Diego López de Medrano y Vergara, ricohombre of Castile, Lord of San Gregorio, and a member of His Majesty's Council. His arms, featuring a castle, goshawk, and hollow cross fleury with a crown on top, are preserved in stone at the Castle of San Gregorio, further affirming his rank and presence among the highest nobility of Castile. He is the father of Luisa de Medrano, Garcí Bravo de Medrano, Alcaide of Atienza, and Catalina de Medrano, lady-in-waiting to Isabella I of Castile, among many others. Diego's wife Magdalena Bravo de Lagunas was the great-great-granddaughter of Alonso Pérez de Guzmán (1256–1309), progenitor of the Dukes of Medina Sidonia. Diego López de Medrano y Vergara is also the progenitor of the Counts of Torrubia, who were united through marriage with the Dukes of Villahermosa, Marquesses of Villamayor, Marquesses of Salamanca, Dukes of Sotomayor, and Dukes of Alba. The coat of arms of Garci Bravo de Medrano y Mendoza, son of Garcí Bravo de Medrano, alcaide of the castle of Atienza, displays the noble arms of the Medrano family entwined with those of the Bravo, Lagunas, and Mendoza houses. Diego's grandson Garcí Bravo de Medrano y Mendoza was linked to the 1st Count of Priego and the 2nd Count of Luna, making him a descendant of King Alfonso IX of León and Queen Berengaria of Castile through his maternal lineage. The same cross motif found on the stone-carved coat of arms of Garci Bravo de Medrano y Mendoza also appears on the arms of Tomás Fernández de Medrano. This visual continuity connects the doctrinal authority of Tomás with the noble lineage of Medrano in Soria. It affirms a shared identity of service, nobility, and endurance across generations of the Medrano family. Service to Charles I, King of Spain, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Empress Isabella of Portugal of Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, and Empress Isabella of Portugal, at the Basilica in El Escorial. Generational service continued into the reign of Charles I, King of Spain, who became Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V in 1519. Tomás Fernández de Medrano's relatives, Diego López de Medrano y Vinuesa, lord of San Gregorio, served as mayordomo mayor (High Steward) to Empress Isabella of Portugal, wife of Charles V and mother of Philip II, and his namesake son Diego López de Medrano became caballerizo mayor to Philip II, while his second son, Francisco de Medrano, served as royal treasurer to Carlos, Prince of Asturias. The Medranos commissioned richly illuminated and finely bound personal copies, customizing them to preserve both their piety and loyalty to Charles V, as well as their own noble status. Compiled in Valladolid and Arenas, Spain, the 1552 Carta Ejecutoria, richly adorned with golden floral illumination beneath the inscription "A Don Carlos," bears the imperial coat of arms of the Holy Roman Emperor and addresses Charles V by his full sovereign titles. Medrano's relative Juan de Medrano became Reyes de Armas of Castile and England under Charles V. Through Juan, the Medranos were not just recognized as noble; they were the ones invested with imperial authority to recognize others. Tomás Fernández de Medrano, in República Mista (1602), defined the Rey de Armas as a juridical and symbolic officer of sovereign dignity. He traced the office to sacred and classical origins, presenting it as essential to monarchy. He recounted that Bacchus, after conquering India, created the Reyes de Armas as a noble order exempt from war: Bacchus: "I free you from the toils of war and want you to be known as seasoned soldiers and heroes. Your duty will be to serve the republic by punishing wrongdoers, praising the good, and otherwise performing your duties exempt from other burdens. In the places you travel, the kings will provide you with whatever you need, whether food or clothing. You will be honored by all and by princes with their gifts. Your words will carry weight, and you will flee from lies. You will judge traitors and declare infamous those who speak ill of women. You shall have the freedom to go where you wish, with safe passage and residence. And if anyone injures you or yours, by word or deed, that person shall be punished with death and loss of property." Medrano noted that Alexander the Great confirmed these privileges, granting the heralds gold, purple, and royal insignia. Augustus codified their immunity under Roman law, and Charlemagne reaffirmed their status, declaring that harm against them would be treated as treason. He cited Lucas de Peña, Nobiliario Vero, Feron of France, Eneas Silvius, Thucydides, Herodotus, Megasthenes, and Xenophon as authorities attesting to their universal dignity. He concluded: Even the humblest of those who serve near kings and occupy their courts are invested with mysteries. For these and many other reasons, we ought to venerate and respect them. This doctrinal vision positioned the Rey de Armas as a mediator of royal power and lineage within the sovereign body. It explains Juan de Medrano's prominence as Rey de Armas of Castile and England, whose work embodied the precepts later codified in República Mista. On 23 January 1555, during a chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece held at Antwerp before Emperor Charles V, Juan (Jehan) de Medrano officiated as one of five heralds at the creation of Rolant Longin as a knight of the order. == See also ==