Bazaar

Bazaar , Iran The origin of the word "bazaar" comes from New Persian bāzār, from Middle Persian wāzār, from Old Persian wāčar, from Proto-Indo-Iranian *wahā-čarana. The term spread from Persian into Arabic, now used throughout the Middle East and in the Indian subcontinent. In North America and Europe, the English word "bazaar" can denote more generically a shop or market selling miscellaneous items. It can also refer in particular to a sale or fair to raise money for charitable purposes (e.g. charity bazaar). The Arabic word '''' was then borrowed into English via French () by the 19th century. The English word can also be spelled "suq" or "souq". In Modern Standard Arabic the term refers to markets in both the physical sense and the abstract economic sense (e.g., an Arabic-speaker would speak of the ' in the old city as well as the ' for oil, and would call the concept of the free market , ). In Israel, the term shuk or shuq () shares a common Aramaic origin with the Arabic souk, and holds a prominent role in everyday life. Markets such as Mahane Yehuda in Jerusalem are often covered rows of stalls much like those seen elsewhere in the region, selling produce, spices, halvah, and even clothing. Variations In northern Morocco, the Spanish corruption socco is often used as in the Grand Socco and Petit Socco of Tangiers. , a popular shuk in Jerusalem, often simply called the Shuk () == History ==

Origins in antiquity Scholar Mohammad Gharipour has pointed out that in spite of the centrality of bazaars in Persian history, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. Archeological data also suggests the existence of market districts in ancient Mesopotamia. Sources from around the same era also indicate that ancient Greeks regulated trade in areas at the center of their cities around stoa buildings. The ideas of Greek city planning were spread to the Middle East during the Seleucid period, following the conquests of Alexander the Great. He also described The Babylonian Marriage Market. Sassanid rule in Iran was an important period for the development of urbanization and commerce. In Sassanid Iran, the bazaar was usually the heart of a town or city, where it spread outwards and affected the development of other neighbourhoods. The bazaar usually contained, or was adjoined by, an open-air plaza that served as a forum of socio-economic activity. In pre-Islamic Arabia, two types of souks existed: permanent urban markets and temporary seasonal markets. The temporary seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce. Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle East in the history of souks, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. However, documentary sources point to permanent marketplaces in cities from as early as 550 BCE. Islamic period in Baghdad (14th century), one of the oldest preserved urban commercial structures in the Islamic world According to traditional Muslim narratives, Muhammad established a market place () in Medina shortly after arriving there during the Hijrah in 622 CE. He designated an open, unbuilt space as the market area and forbade both the construction of permanent structures and the levying of taxes in this area. The oldest of these is the Khan al-Mirjan in Baghdad, built in 1359 as part of a larger architectural complex. in Damascus Muhammad's prohibition against constructing permanent buildings and levying taxes in the market began to be disregarded as early as the Umayyad period (7th to 8th centuries). The Umayyad caliphs Mu'awiya I and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik both built structures in the market of Medina and levied taxes there, while purpose-built markets were built in early Islamic cities further abroad such as Basra in Iraq, Fustat in Egypt, and Kairouan in Tunisia. This process seems to have accelerated during the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik () in particular. 21st century In the Middle East, the bazaar is considered to be "the beating heart of the city and a symbol of Islamic architecture and culture of high significance." Today, bazaars are popular sites for tourists and some of these ancient bazaars have been listed as world heritage sites or national monuments on the basis of their historical, cultural or architectural value. The Medina of Fez, Morocco, which includes numerous long market streets (e.g. Tala'a Kebira) and bazaar areas (e.g. Kissariat al-Kifah), was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981. Al-Madina Souk in Aleppo is the largest covered historic market in the world, with an approximate length of 13 kilometers. It is part of the Ancient Aleppo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986 in Syria. The Bazaar complex in Tabriz, Iran, was listed by UNESCO in 2010. The Bazaar of Qaisiyariye in Lar, Iran, is on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2007. Kemeraltı Bazaar in İzmir was placed on tentative list in 2020. == Organization and institutions ==

Shopping at a souk or market place is part of daily life throughout much of the Middle East. Prices are commonly set by bargaining, also known as haggling, between buyers and sellers. Bazaars or souks are traditionally divided into specialized sections dealing in specific types of product, each usually housed in a few narrow streets and named after the product it specializes in such as the gold souk, the textile souk, the spice souk, the leather souk, the booksellers' souk, etc. This promotes competition among sellers and helps buyers easily compare prices. They also investigated complaints about cheating or the quality of goods. The equivalent official could be known by other titles in different regions, such as the kedkhoda in Istanbul or the amir-i bazariyan in Delhi. In the Maghreb (northwestern Africa), the also shared responsibilities with other officials such as the qadi or the . == Layout and architecture ==

, the central bazaar of Cairo (photo from 1880s)Permanent bazaars were established in urban zones, usually within the city walls and close to the heart of the city. In much of the Middle East and North Africa, the bazaar is a network of interconnected spaces, including streets and buildings, with diverse architectural forms. Its boundaries are not sharply defined and can vary according to circumstance, as the bazaar is closely integrated with its urban surroundings and with other important institutions of the city. Although there is great variety among the bazaars of this region, there are three recurring elements, in addition to the general network of market streets. One element is the individual shops or booths that line each side of a market street. The shops are usually small spaces open to the street and occupied by merchants. They are typically equipped with large shutters which can be closed and locked when the shopkeeper is away. Some Iranian bazaars are organized around one long market street from which other market streets branch off (e.g. in Isfahan or Tehran), while others are large rectangular zones with a grid-like network of parallel and intersecting streets (e.g. as in Tabriz). The Ottoman bedesten was a solid stone building, typically rectangular and roofed by domes, with shops inside. Like the or '' in other regions, it hosted the most important and luxurious trades. The is usually an elongated market structure or market street with shops lining its façades. Arasta''s could be independent markets built outside the main bazaar area, such as those built as part of large religious complexes like the Selimiye Mosque complex in Edirne or the Sultanahmet Mosque complex in Istanbul. The Spice Bazaar or ('Egyptian Market') in Istanbul is also one of the largest and best-known examples. The is similar in function to other '''' or caravanserai buildings elsewhere, with a courtyard enclosed by two storeys. The ground floor was usually used for storage and for stabling horses, while the upper floor housed merchants. == Temporary souks ==

, Yemen A temporary, seasonal souk is held at a set time that might be yearly, monthly or weekly. The oldest souks were set up annually, and were typically general festivals held outside cities. For example, Souk Ukadh was held yearly in pre-Islamic times in an area between Mecca and Ta’if during the sacred month of Dhu al-Qi'dah. While a busy market, it was more famous for its poetry competitions, judged by prominent poets such as Al-Khansa and Al-Nabigha. An example of an Islamic annual souk is Al Mirbid just outside Basra, also famed for its poetry competitions in addition to its storytelling activities. Temporary souks tended to become known for specific types of produce. For example, Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. Political, economic and social changes have left only the small seasonal souks outside villages and small towns, primarily selling livestock and agricultural products. Weekly markets have continued to function throughout the Arab world. Most of them are named from the day of the week on which they are held. They usually have open spaces specifically designated for their use inside cities. Examples of surviving markets are the Wednesday Market in Amman that specializes in the sale of used products, the Ghazl market held every Friday in Baghdad specializing in pets; the Fina’ Market in Marrakesh offers performance acts such as singing, music, acrobats and circus activities. In tribal areas, where seasonal souks operated, neutrality from tribal conflicts was usually declared for the period of operation of a souk to permit the unhampered exchange of surplus goods. Some of the seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce such as Suq Hijr in Bahrain, noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle Eastern market place, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. == In art and literature – Orientalism ==

During the 18th and 19th centuries, Europeans conquered and excavated parts of North Africa and the Levant. These regions now make up what is called the Middle East, but in the past were known as the Orient. Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups – the European West (the Occident, ultimately from the Latin language) and the East (or Orient); us and the other. Europeans often saw Orientals as the opposite of Western civilization; the peoples could be threatening- they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational." At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with the other gave rise to a genre of painting known as Orientalism. A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during the early modern period. Subject-matter Many of these works were lavishly illustrated with engravings of every day scenes of Oriental lifestyles, including scenes of market places and market trade. Artists focused on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favorite subject matter. Some of these works were propaganda designed to justify European imperialism in the East, however many artists relied heavily on their everyday experiences for inspiration in their artworks. For example, Charles D'Oyly, who was born in India, published the Antiquities of Dacca featuring a series of 15 engraved plates of Dacca [now Dhaka, Bangladesh] featuring scenes of markets, commerce, buildings and streetscapes. European society generally frowned on nude painting – but harems, concubines and slave markets, presented as quasi-documentary works, satisfied European desires for pornographic art. The Oriental female wearing a veil was a particularly tempting subject because she was hidden from view, adding to her mysterious allure. Notable Orientalist artists Notable artists in the Orientalist genre include: Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830–1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853-1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910) who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce. French painter Jean-Étienne Liotard visited Istanbul in the 17th century and painted pastels of Turkish domestic scenes. British painter John Frederick Lewis who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life. Edwin Lord Weeks was a notable American example of a 19th-century artist and author in the Orientalism genre. His parents were wealthy tea and spice merchants who were able to fund his travels and interest in painting. In 1895 Weeks wrote and illustrated a book of travels titled From the Black Sea through Persia and India. Other notable painters in the Orientalist genre who included scenes of street life and market-based trade in their work are Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830–1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853–1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910), who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce. Orientalist literature A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during the early modern period. Many English visitors to the Orient wrote narratives around their travels. British Romantic literature in the Orientalism tradition has its origins in the early eighteenth century, with the first translations of The Arabian Nights (translated into English from the French in 1705–08). The popularity of this work inspired authors to develop a new genre, the Oriental tale. Samuel Johnson's History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia, (1759) is mid-century example of the genre. Byron's Oriental Tales, is another example of the Romantic Orientalism genre. Although these works were purportedly non-fiction, they were notoriously unreliable. Many of these accounts provided detailed descriptions of market places, trading and commerce. Examples of travel writing include: ''Les Mysteres de L'Egypte Devoiles'' by Olympe Audouard published in 1865 and Jacques Majorelle's Road Trip Diary of a Painter in the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas published in 1922 Gallery of paintings and drawings File:The Moorish Bazaar.jpg|The Moorish Bazaar, painting by Edwin Lord Weeks, 1873 File:Street Scene in India.JPG|Street Scene in India, by Edwin Lord Weeks, circa 1885 File:Cashmere Travellers in a Street of Delhi.jpg|Cashmere Travellers in a Street of Delhi by Edwin Lord Weeks, 1880s File:'Claudius Bombarnac' by Léon Benett 28.jpg|Bazaar in Samarkand, illustration by Léon Benett for a Jules Verne novel, 1893 File:Alexandre Defaux - The Bazaar, 1856.jpg|The Bazaar, by Alexandre Defaux, 1856 File:Amadeo Preziosi - The Grand Bazaar - Google Art Project.jpg|The Grand Bazaar, Istanbul, by Amadeo Preziosi, late 19th century File:Amadeo Preziosi - The Silk Bazaar - Google Art Project.jpg|The Silk Bazaar by Amedeo Preziosi, late 19th century File:Anton Robert Leinweber - Souk des étoffes, Tunis.jpg|Souk des étoffes, Tunis by Anton Robert Leinweber, before 1921 File:Carpet Merchant in the Khan el Khaleel (1878) - TIMEA.jpg|Carpet Merchant in the Khan el Khaleel, from Georg Ebers, Egypt: Descriptive, Historical, and Picturesque, Vol. 1, 1878 File:Charles Wilda - Inside the Souk, Cairo 1892.jpg|Inside the Souk, Cairo by Charles Wilda, 1892 File:David Roberts bazaar coppersmiths.jpg|Bazaar of the Coppersmiths in Cairo by David Roberts, 1838 File:David Roberts Bazaar El Moo Ristan.jpg|Bazaar El Moo Ristan in Cairo, by David Roberts, 1838 File:Teemcheh.jpg|Timcheh Amin-o-Dowleh in the Kashan Bazaar, Iran, == List of bazaars and souks ==