Beltane was one of four Gaelic seasonal festivals:
Samhain (1 November),
Imbolc (1 February), Beltane (1 May), and
Lughnasadh (1 August). Beltane marked the beginning of the pastoral summer season, when livestock were
driven out to the summer pastures. Rituals were held at that time to protect them from harm, both natural and supernatural, and this mainly involved the "symbolic use of fire". Beltane was a "spring time festival of optimism" during which "fertility ritual again was important, perhaps connecting with the waxing power of the sun". In another entry, for "Bel, Bil",
Sanas Cormaic says that Belltaine means "fire of Bel", explaining that Bel or Bil was "an idol god" and that "a fire was kindled in his name at the beginning of summer always, and cattle were driven between the two fires". Some scholars suggest that this might have been the Celtic healing god
Belenos, although there is no other mention of Bel in Old Irish writings.
Glosses in the
Senchas Már, a 7th–8th century collection of laws, say that it is customary to take the cattle out around May Day () from the green of the old residence () to a summer pasture (), and to return around November Day (). According to 17th-century historian
Geoffrey Keating, there was a great gathering at the hill of
Uisneach each Beltane in medieval Ireland, where a sacrifice was made to a god named
Beil. Keating wrote that two bonfires would be lit in every district of Ireland, and cattle would be driven between them to protect them from disease. There is no reference to such a gathering in
the annals, but the medieval
Dindsenchas (lore of places) includes a tale of a hero lighting a holy fire on Uisneach that blazed for seven years. Ronald Hutton writes that this may "preserve a tradition of Beltane ceremonies there", but adds "Keating or his source may simply have conflated this legend with the information in
Sanas Chormaic to produce a piece of pseudo-history". Evidence suggests it was "a sanctuary-site, in which fire was kept burning perpetually, or kindled at frequent intervals", where
animal sacrifices were offered. Beltane is also mentioned in medieval Scottish literature. An early reference is found in the poem 'Peblis to the Play', contained in the
Maitland Manuscripts of 15th- and 16th-century Scots poetry, which describes the celebration in the town of
Peebles.
Modern era From the late 18th century to the mid 20th century, many accounts of Beltane customs were recorded by
folklorists and other writers. For example
John Jamieson, in his
Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language (1808), describes some of the Beltane customs which persisted in the 18th and early 19th centuries in parts of Scotland, which he noted were beginning to die out.
Bonfires Bonfires continued to be a key part of the festival in the modern era. All hearth fires would be doused before the bonfire was lit, generally on a hill.
Ronald Hutton writes that "To increase the potency of the holy flames, in Britain at least they were often kindled by the most primitive of all means, of friction between wood." and used to re-light the hearth. Frazer believed the fire rituals are a kind of
imitative or sympathetic magic. He suggests they were meant to mimic the Sun and "ensure a needful supply of sunshine for men, animals, and plants", as well as to symbolically "burn up and destroy all harmful influences". Food was also cooked at the bonfire and there were rituals involving it. In the Scottish Highlands,
Alexander Carmichael recorded that there was a feast featuring lamb, and that formerly this lamb was
sacrificed. In 1769,
Thomas Pennant wrote of Beltane bonfires in
Perthshire, where a
caudle made from eggs, butter, oatmeal and milk was cooked. Some of the mixture was poured on the ground as a
libation. Everyone would then take an oatmeal cake, called a or "Beltane
bannock", which had nine knobs on it. Each person would face the fire, break off a knob one-by-one and throw it over their shoulder, offering them to the spirits to protect their livestock (one to protect the horses, one to protect the sheep, and so forth) and to the predators that might harm their livestock (one to the fox, one to the eagle, and so forth). Afterwards, they would drink the caudle.
Flowers and May Bushes Yellow and white flowers such as
primrose,
rowan,
hawthorn,
gorse,
hazel, and
marsh marigold were traditionally placed at doorways and windows; this is documented in 19th century Ireland, Scotland and Mann. Sometimes loose flowers were strewn at doors and windows and sometimes they were made into
bouquets,
garlands or crosses and fastened to them. Cows would also be decorated with them, and they would be fastened to equipment for milking and butter making. It is likely that such flowers were used because they evoked fire. This was a small tree or branch—typically hawthorn, rowan, holly or sycamore—decorated with bright flowers, ribbons, painted shells or eggshells from Easter Sunday, and so forth. The tree would either be decorated where it stood, or branches would be decorated and placed inside or outside the house (particularly above windows and doors, on the roof, and on barns). The tree would also be decorated with candles or
rushlights.
Emyr Estyn Evans suggests that the May Bush custom may have come to Ireland from England, because it seemed to be found in areas with strong English influence and because the Irish saw it as unlucky to damage certain thorn trees. However, "lucky" and "unlucky" trees varied by region, and it has been suggested that Beltane was the only time when cutting thorn trees was allowed. The practice of bedecking a May Bush with flowers, ribbons, garlands and bright shells is found among the Gaelic diaspora, most notably in
Newfoundland, and in some Easter traditions on the
East Coast of the United States. For example, May flowers were tied to milk pails or the tails of cattle to ensure the cattle's milk was not stolen, or three black coals might be placed under a butter churn to ensure the fairies did not steal the butter. Food was left or milk poured at the doorstep or places associated with the , such as 'fairy trees', as an offering. However, milk was never given to a neighbour on May Day because it was feared that the milk would be transferred to the neighbour's cow. In Ireland, cattle would be brought to '
fairy forts', where a small amount of their blood would be collected. The owners would then pour it into the earth with prayers for the herd's safety. Sometimes the blood would be left to dry and then be burnt. People made the sign of the cross with milk for good luck on Beltane, and the sign of the cross was also made on the backsides of cattle.
Beltane blessings In the 19th century, folklorist
Alexander Carmichael (1832–1912), collected the
Scottish Gaelic song ("The Beltane Blessing") in his
Carmina Gadelica, which he heard from a
crofter in
South Uist. The dew was collected in a jar, left in sunlight, then filtered. The dew was thought to increase sexual attractiveness, maintain youthfulness, protect from sun damage (particularly freckles and sunburn) and help with skin ailments for the ensuing year. It was also thought that a man who washed his face with soap and water on Beltane will grow long whiskers on his face. On May Night a cake and a jug were left on the table, because it was believed that the Irish who had died abroad would return on May Day to their ancestral homes, and it was also believed that the dead returned on May Day to visit their friends. A
robin that flew into the house on Beltane was believed to portend the death of a household member. The festival persisted widely up until the 1950s, and in some places the celebration of Beltane continues today. ==Revival==