Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II

in Potosí, the largest silver mine in the world, painting form 1715 The government of Spain, to streamline the operation of its colonial empire, began introducing what became known as the Bourbon Reforms throughout South America. In 1776, as part of these reforms, it created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata by separating Upper Peru (modern Bolivia) and the territory that is now Argentina from the Viceroyalty of Peru. These territories included the economically important silver mines at Potosí, whose economic benefits began to flow to Buenos Aires in the east instead of Cuzco and Lima to the west. The economic hardship this introduced to parts of the Altiplano combined with systemic oppression of indigenous and mestizo underclasses (a recurring source of localized uprisings throughout Spanish colonial South America) to create an environment in which a large-scale uprising could occur. In 1778 Spain raised sales taxes (known as the alcabala) on goods such as rum and pulque (the common alcoholic beverages of the peasants and commoners) while tightening the rest of its tax system in its colonies, in part to fund its participation in the American Revolutionary War. José Gabriel Condorcanqui, an upper-class indigenous leader with claims to the Inca royal lineage, adopted the name Túpac Amaru II (alluding to Túpac Amaru, the last Inca emperor), and in 1780 called for rebellion. He claimed to be acting on behalf of the King of Spain, enforcing royal authority on the corrupt and treacherous colonial administration. In 1780, during the rebellion, Fernando Vélaz de Medrano, 4th Marquess of Tabuérniga, informed the Prince of Asturias (the future Charles IV of Spain) about the rebellion and widespread corruption among royal officials in South America, particularly regarding the playing card and tobacco monopolies imposed by Minister José de Gálvez, which were seen as a catalyst for the unrest. Túpac Amaru was motivated in part by reading of a prophecy that the Inca would rule again with British support. He may have been aware of the British colonial rebellion in North America and Spanish involvement in the war. Additionally, the growth of mining as a source of colonial revenue was largely caused by the increased burden placed on indigenous workers who formed the base of the labor used to mine silver, leading to increased unrest. == First phase ==

Capture and execution of Antonio de Arriaga . On 4 November 1780, after a celebration of the king Charles III in Yanaoca, where cacique Túpac Amaru II and supporters seized Antonio Arriaga, the corregidor of his hometown of Tinta and interim Governor of Tucumán. They forced him to write letters to his treasurer in Tinta requesting money and arms and to other influential individuals and kurakas ordering them to congregate in Tungasuca, where Arriaga was being held prisoner. While Arriaga was being kept in the basement of Túpac Amaru and Micaela Bastidas's home, Túpac Amaru traveled to Arriaga's home in Tinta to seize arms, money, and resources. On 10 November, six days after his capture, Arriaga was executed by hanging by his slave, in front of thousands of gathered indigenous, mestizos, and criollos (locals of recognized Spanish descent). On 16 November 1780, Túpac Amaru issued a proclamation decreeing the emancipation of Afro-Peruvian and African slaves. In this document, he exhorted all "decent" Spaniards, the clergy, and others friendly with the Peruvian population to join the fight against the hostilities and abuses of the European population; and all those who had been mistreated by the "chapetones" (a derogatory term for Spaniards), including slaves, to abandon them. This decision served a tactical purpose: with the escape of the slaves, the colonial export economy would collapse and the rebel forces would grow. Furthermore, the psychological effect was that in Lima, the upper classes on their haciendas would be more concerned about the defiant slaves and the free blacks and mulattos than about the population of the highlands. These also included ending the mita rotational labor system and limiting the power of the corregidor and thus amplifying his power as cacique and Túpac sought to create a new audiencia at Cusco. Despite the rebel leaders' efforts to control rumors and the flow of information, news of Arriaga's execution quickly reached the city of Cusco, from where an army of 1,500 militiamen and local volunteers was financed and formed. On 17 November, the forces sent by the Spanish authorities in Cusco arrived at the town of Sangarará, camping around the church. The Spanish militia were led by corregidores Tiburcio Landa, Fernando Cabrera, and Pedro Sahuaraura. There was poor communication and much disagreement on location of the Spanish camp between the corregidores. On the morning of 18 November, Túpac Amaru's army, which had grown to several thousand men, defeated them at the Battle of Sangarará. Tomasa Tito Condemayta led a women's garrison during the battle. A cartridge of a Spanish soldier caught fire and burned the church. Túpac then turned south, against the advice of his wife and lieutenant Micaela Bastidas, who urged him to attack Cusco before the government could mobilize. Micaela Bastidas was a pivotal force in the rebellion and is often overlooked. Bastidas was known for leading an uprising in the Tungasuca region. Indigenous communities often sided with the rebels, and local militias put up little resistance. It was not long before Túpac's forces had taken control of almost the entire southern Peruvian plateau. Following his victory at Sangarará, Túpac Amaru returned triumphantly to Tungasuca in mid-November 1780. He and Micaela Bastidas, however, were aware that they had only defeated the first wave sent by the hastily organized junta in the city of Cusco, and they expected a fierce royalist offensive from Peru's second-largest city, Cusco. They were also concerned about an attack by viceroyal troops from the south, either from the Lake Titicaca area or from the city of Arequipa to the southwest. Many in the rebel camp believed that the royalists would first reinforce their forces at their base in the Sacred Valley before advancing north toward the city of Cusco. However, Túpac Amaru planned his strategy southward, towards Lake Titicaca, a predominantly indigenous area where his message of freedom would be very well received in a region that endured the abuses of the mining mita, particularly for the silver mines of Potosí. The Aymara leader, Túpac Katari, claimed to be the viceroy appointed by Tupac Amaru II and led his forces to besiege the city of La Paz with his wife Bartolina Sisa in March 1781. Spanish reaction 90 kilometers away in Cusco, Bishop Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta directed the royalist efforts, raising money, organizing processions, and communicating with the authorities in Lima, his priests in rebel territory, and the militia leaders. With little or distorted news about events south of the city, the bishop and much of the population feared an imminent encirclement. Reports of rebel actions heading south caused panic among the people of Cusco, given the inaction of the royalist leaders who, after their defeat at Sangarará, had abandoned any kind of attack while awaiting reinforcements from Lima. Both patriots and royalists sought to win the battles of information and propaganda by sending spies and messengers, while inflating their strength and masking their intentions and anxieties. News of the Túpac Amaru uprising and the execution of Arriaga reached Lima on 24 November, 1780, causing alarm in the city. Viceroy Agustín de Jáuregui convened an emergency meeting with the Inspector General of the Navy, Commander José del Valle, the Inspector General José Antonio de Areche, and the members of the Supreme Court. On November 28, Colonel Gabriel de Avilés, departed for Cusco at the head of a select cavalry squadron of 200 members of the militia of the "free pardos" (people of mixed race), with orders to recruit soldiers along their march to Cusco and, if necessary, to bring men from Arequipa. The rebel tactic followed a standard procedure: while scouts searched for enemies and supplies, Túpac Amaru delivered a passionate speech about his movement from the church steps. Many listeners joined the rebel forces, and on 25 November, Túpac Amaru wrote a proclamation addressed to the population of Lampa, announcing his campaign against Spanish tyranny and abuses, as well as his commitment to the Creoles; at the same time, he boasted of having 6,000 followers, including indigenous people, Creoles, and people from outside the area. Throughout this campaign, he had at his side Hipólito, his eldest son, and the peninsular artilleryman Antonio de Figueroa. One of the leading commanders, Tomasa Tito Condemayta, commanding a women's brigade in Acos and Acomayo, stopped a royalist militia advance led by Mateo Pumacahua in the Battle of Pillpinto on 26 November. Túpac Amaru ordered the kurakas of the central region to halt any attacks from Cusco while he continued to exert pressure on the south. The main rebel base became Tungasuca, led by second in command, Micaela Bastidas. After attacking the mining town of Caylloma in late November, from which Spanish officials fled with large amounts of money from the royal treasuries and silver, Túpac Amaru's forces crossed the glacier-covered mountains of La Raya, the dividing line between Cusco and Puno. Reports on the size of his army vary from 10,000 to 60,000 men. On December 4, the rebels reached the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, entering the small town of Macara in modern day northern Argentina. In mid-November, the royalists had captured Simón Noguera, nephew of Túpac Amaru, at the Queque hacienda, near Santa Rosa, while he was carrying out reconnaissance duties and delivering letters and proclamations inciting rebellion; and, despite the pleas of the local residents, the corregidor Horé pronounced the death sentence . The corregidores of Chucuito, Lampa, Azángaro, Puno, and Carabaya, met in a junta in Lampa on December 4, where they oversaw Noguera's execution. The death of her nephew caused grief to Micaela Bastidas; and Túpac Amaru, who vowed revenge, ordered one rebel group to occupy the Queque hacienda, while another marched to Lampa, from where the corregidores fled and deserters joined Túpac Amaru's side. The leader and his troops triumphantly entered Ayaviri on December 6, where the priests met with them formally and Túpac Amaru gave a speech to recruit men for his army and reassure the Creoles and mestizos. Advancing rapidly through the province of Quispicanchi, he followed the route through neighboring towns from the south. Antonio Castelo led a smaller vanguard group through the valley with orders to recruit, attack royalist forces, plunder haciendas, and surround the city from the north. Meanwhile, Diego Cristóbal returned to the Sacred Valley with the intention of opening a second front. Túpac Amaru ordered the mobilization of his troops to surround the city, beginning the Siege of Cusco, which would last for over a week. Both sides clashed in bloody hand-to-hand combat, with weapons and cannons adding to the carnage. The revolutionary force attacked with bravery and tenacity, encouraged by Túpac Amaru, riding a white horse and sharing all the risks of the siege. Likewise, the high command of the defenders of Cusco carried out their duties effectively, with the bishop and the mayor playing particularly noteworthy roles. Reinforced by 8,000 men, the forces defending the city numbered over 12,000 soldiers. Finally, discouraged by the lack of support from the city's population and the desertions caused by the harsh conditions of the rebel camp in the hills of Cusco, and refusing to massacre the indigenous troops that the royalists placed in the vanguard, Túpac Amaru ordered the end of the siege on January 11, 1781. Following these failures, his coalition of disparate malcontents began to fall apart, with the upper-caste Creoles abandoning him first to rejoin the loyalist forces. Further defeats and Spanish offers of amnesty for rebel defectors hastened the collapse of Túpac's forces. Areche publicly recognized royalist supporters and conferred the rank of captain upon Mateo Pumacahua and other royalist kurakas. Days later, he issued a widely distributed decree, offering a pardon to rebels who surrendered their weapons and appeared in the city, excluding 35 people from this decree, including Micaela Bastidas, Túpac Amaru, his family, and his leading commanders. Seeking to divide the rebels, the inspector also offered a reward of eighty pesos a month to anyone who betrayed their leaders. Tinta campaign Informed by his spies, the Túpac Amaru II's main objective was to destroy the central royalist outpost, where the royalist high command was stationed, for which he devised a ruse. On March 18, he sent word to Del Valle that, on the occasion of the feast of Saint Joseph, he would launch a vigorous attack the following day. Del Valle kept his men on constant alert and slowed their march as a precaution, which caused him to lose sight of the rebels. Túpac Amaru took advantage of this situation to conceal his troops and mislead the royalist command. On March 22, the opportune moment for a surprise attack arose in the frozen region of Pucacasa, beginning the Battle of Pucacasa. But, while the rebel forces were pitching their tents to face the harsh weather, an escaped prisoner reached the royalist camp and warned them of the surprise maneuver that would unfold that night. Forewarned of the attack, Del Valle took every precaution and remained on the lookout. When the attack began, the rebels were met with heavy rifle fire and failed to gain control of the royalist camp and withdrew the following day. Despite the warning, Del Valle's troops barely managed to repel the attack after receiving reinforcements from the column led by Juan Manuel Campero, suffering major losses. Del Valle witnessed his troops collapsing in the snow, exhausted from days without sleep, hunger, and extreme cold. His plan was to retreat to Upper Peru and regroup with the rebels being led by Túpac Katari, who was beginning the Siege of La Paz. Amaru II was betrayed by Landaeta and de la Cruz, which led to his capture, along with battalion leader Tomasa Tito Condemayta. On April 7, Landaeta and de la Cruz also handed over to the royalists Micaela Bastidas, her two sons, Hipólito and Fernando, other members of her family and rebel captains, who were seeking to escape to La Paz through Livitaca. Del Valle's army transferred Túpac Amaru and 30 other prisoners to Tinta. Diego Cristóbal, who led the scattered rebels, had plans to rescue Túpac Amaru and the other prisoners from Urcos. He would attack Layo, successfully defeating royalists, however, Antonio de Areche left with the main convey alongside Del Valle, arriving in Cusco on 14 April with great applause and celebration. Over the course of a month, Túpac Amaru and his fellow commanders would go on trial and face severe torture. When his captors attempted to procure the names of his rebel accomplices from him in exchange for promises, Amaru II scornfully replied "There are no accomplices here other than you and I. You as oppressor, I as liberator, deserve to die." While awaiting his death, Túpac attempted escape two times and wrote letters using falling blood from his arm. On 15 May 1781, Túpac was sentenced to death, and on 18 May forced to witness the execution of his wife and one of his children before he was himself quartered. Túpac's youngest son, Fernando was imprisoned and exiled to Africa until being moved to Cádiz. The location of the executions was in the center of the Plaza de Armas of Cusco. The four horses running in opposite directions failed to tear his limbs apart, and so Túpac was beheaded. Despite the death of Túpac Amaru II, the rebellion continued until 1783 by his relatives other leaders. == Second phase ==

Katari brothers Troubling news reached Cusco from the Lake Titicaca and Collao region that other rebels were threatening much of the Real Audiencia of Charcas. Royalists worried that the rebellion could paralyze Charcas and separate Upper Peru from the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Even worse for the Spanish would be if the rebels in Upper Peru joined forces with the followers of Túpac Amaru, starting a struggle that would spread from Cusco to Potosí, and potentially further. Between 1780 and 1782, Túpac Amaru and the Túpac and Tomás Katari revolutionaries made intermittent efforts to unite, an alliance the royalists sought to prevent. Unlike the Túpac Amaru II Rebellion, Charcas was the site of several related but ununified rebellions. In the Chayanta region, north of Potosí, tensions between the indigenous people and the colonial authorities escalated in the late 1770s. In 1778, Tomás Katari, a humble Aymara man from the Chayanta region, argued against the Alcabala and Mit'a on behalf of the village of Macha before the Audiencia of Buenos Aires, and, like José Gabriel who was in Lima at the same time, Katari returned home disillusioned with the viceregal legal system. During his return from Buenos Aires, Katari was imprisoned, freed by his followers, and imprisoned again until, on August 26, 1780, Indigenous people from across the region stormed the town of Pocoata and captured the corregidor Joaquín Alós , whom they exchanged for Katari. Subsequently, the Chayanta community governed itself after Katari and his followers reinvented the relationship between communities and the stat . In mid-December, a militia captain, Juan Antonio Acuña, arrested the leader and, when the indigenous people attacked the convoy, executed Katari. The attackers killed Acuña and his entourage, leaving their bodies unburied and Acuña's eyes gouged out. Tomás Katari's brothers, Dámaso and Nicolás, assumed leadership of the insurrection forming a massive rebel army that swept through towns and communities, targeting Spaniards and Creoles, as well as colonial institutions of exploitation such as haciendas, textile workshops, and mestizo settlements. Coordinating with other communities, they led the siege of the city of Sucre, then known as La Plata, in February 1781. Dámaso Katari expressed confidence in securing the support of Túpac Amaru; however, the alliance failed to materialize due to the two groups being preoccupied with their respective regions. Indigenous people loyal to the Spanish captured Dámaso and Nicolás Katari. The authorities publicly and gruesomely executed Dámaso on April 27, 1781, in La Plata, and murdered Nicolás on May 7, weeks before the death of Túpac Amaru. Oruro Rebellion In the city of Oruro, wealthy Creoles allied themselves with the lower classes and the indigenous peasantry to combat Spanish power in an uprising that resembled the Túpac Amaru rebellion in its hierarchical and multi-class sociology. After hearing of plans on an uprising, the corregidor Ramón de Urrutia y Las Casas formed a militia on 9 February 1781. The following day, the militia targeted rebel creole, Jacinto Rodríguez y Herrera, who was one of the main organizers of the insurrection, but he had already left the city. Urrutia ordered barricades along the main square However, many of the militiamen were against Urrutia and after facing mutiny, he fled to Cochabamba. Corregidor Juan de Dios Rodríguez y Herrera assumed control after Urrutia's departure, who forcefully expelled indigenous citizens of the city. On 10 February 1781, rebels took to the streets of Oruro, ransacking homes and important buildings. The Spanish fled to the hills surrounding the city and fired upon main rebel camps, killing women and children. In retaliation, rebels massacred anyone loyal to the Spanish. To avoid being attacked, many Creoles dressed in indigenous clothing and went about shouting "Long live Túpac Amaru!". On February 13, Sergeant Sebastian Pagador , head of the guard at the Royal Treasury building, made the imprudent decision to assault one of the indigenous leaders, which provoked a violent reaction from them: he was killed in the same block. After hearing news of the rebellion, Viceroy Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo sent Sebastián de Segurola to suppress the uprising and capture its principal leaders. After a few weeks, the rebels successfully won the uprising. They would maintain control of Oruro until 1783 when reinforcements invaded the city and executed any rebels. In 1784, a court case known as the La Causa de Oruro took place to put crimes of treason on rebels, ordered by King Charles III. Diego Cristóbal and Túpac Katari led by Túpac Katari in 1781, painting by Alejandro René Gonzáles Estrada. Túpac Amaru's capture and execution did not end the rebellion. In his place, his surviving relatives, namely his cousin Diego Cristóbal Túpac Amaru, continued the rebellion, albeit using guerilla tactics, and transferred the rebellion's focal point to the Collao highlands around Lake Titicaca. Andrés Túpac Amaru, nephew of Túpac Amaru II, led a troop to join Túpac Katari, who besieged La Paz again in August 1781. Government efforts to destroy the rebellion were frustrated by, among other things, a high desertion rate, hostile locals, scorched-earth tactics, the onset of winter, and the region's altitude (most of the troops were from the lowlands and had trouble adjusting). Some historians have described these killings aimed at non-natives, in conjunction with attempts to violently eradicate various non-native cultural customs, as genocidal in nature. Many of the leaders who fought in the rebellion after Túpac de Amaru's death were discovered to be women (32 out of 73) and were later acknowledged by the eventual liberator of Spanish America, Simón Bolívar in his speech in 1820. == Women in the rebellion ==

Throughout the mid-1700s, women had a changing role throughout Latin America. They began getting involved politically, economically, and culturally. Women had begun getting involved in the workforce, particularly producing cotton cloth and working as market traders. Because of these growing gender role changes, women were involved in the Túpac Amaru II revolt. Túpac's wife, Micaela Bastidas, had commanded her battalion, and she and her battalion were responsible for the uprising in the San Felipe de Tungasucan region. Micaela Bastidas and Bartolina Sisa took part in demonstrations against high prices, food distribution networks, racist treatment of Natives, high taxes, and tightening restrictions on the colonies. In addition, Tomasa Tito Condemayta played a major role for the rebels in leading her own battalion, along with Gregoria Apaza commanding her army in the Siege of La Paz. Although women were involved in the revolution and had a very active role throughout their villages, leading to independence throughout the region, they had received little attention for their efforts. == Aftermath ==

in Cusco The ultimate death toll is estimated at 100,000 indigenous and 10,000–40,000 non-natives. Viceroy Jáuregui lessened mita obligations in an attempt to ameliorate some of the indigenous peoples' complaints. In 1784, his successor, Teodoro de Croix, abolished the corregidors and reorganized the colonial administration around eight intendants. In 1787, an audiencia was established in Cuzco. Areche's decrees following the execution of Túpac Amaru II included the banning of the Quechua language, the wearing of indigenous clothing, and virtually any mention or commemoration of Inca culture and history. Areche's attempts to destroy Inca culture after the execution of Túpac Amaru II were confirmed by royal decree in April 1782; however, colonial authorities lacked the resources to enforce these laws, and they were soon largely forgotten. Still, paintings depicting the Inca were destroyed, and the juridical institution of the cacique was abolished, with many caciques being replaced by administrators from outside the native locality. This undermined the power of indigenous rulership despite concessions from the viceroyalty. == See also ==