Ancient Egypt Apotropaic magical rituals were practiced throughout the
ancient Near East and
ancient Egypt. Fearsome deities were invoked via ritual in order to protect individuals by warding away evil spirits. In ancient Egypt, these household rituals (performed in the home, not in state-run
temples) were embodied by the deity who personified magic itself,
Heka. The two gods most frequently invoked in these rituals were the
hippopotamus-formed
fertility goddess,
Taweret, and the lion-deity,
Bes (who developed from the early apotropaic dwarf god,
Aha, ). Objects were often used in these rituals in order to facilitate communication with the gods. One of the most commonly found magical objects, the ivory apotropaic
wand (
birth tusk), gained widespread popularity in the
Middle Kingdom (c. 2040 – 1782 BCE). These wands were used to protect expectant mothers and children from malevolent forces, and were adorned with processions of apotropaic
solar deities. The
cowroid amulet (imitating the
cowrie shell) was also used to protect pregnant mothers and children, and was typically incorporated into a woman's
girdle. Likewise, protective amulets bearing the likenesses of
gods and goddesses such as
Taweret were commonly worn. Water came to be used frequently in ritual as well, wherein libation vessels in the shape of Taweret were used to pour healing water over an individual. In much later periods (when Egypt came under the
Greek Ptolemies),
stele featuring the god
Horus were used in similar rituals; water would be poured over the stele and—after ritually acquiring healing powers—was collected in a basin for an afflicted person to drink.
Ancient Greece The
ancient Greeks had various protective symbols and objects, with various names, such as , , , , , phylaktiria, , , and . The Greeks made offerings to the "
averting gods" (),
chthonic deities and
heroes who grant safety and deflect evil and for the protection of the infants they wore on them amulets with apotropaic powers and committed the child to the care of
kourotrophic (child-nurturing) deities. There were also the Ἀποπομπαῖοι θεοί ("gods who send away/drive away/dismiss evil") and Ἀπωσίκακοι θεοί ("evil-averting gods"). The Greeks gave the epithet
Alexicacus (Ἀλεξίκακος), meaning "averter of evil", to several deities, including
Zeus and
Apollo. Greeks placed
talismans in their houses and wore amulets to protect them from the
evil eye. They also attached charms on the animals. They also gave offerings and made sacrifices to ward off evil. Another way for protection from enchantment used by the ancient Greeks was by spitting into the folds of the clothes. Ancient Greek sources state that
anagyros (Ἀνάγυρος), also known as onogyros (Ὀνόγυρος), was a plant described as evil-averting and foul-smelling, particularly when rubbed or crushed.
Crosses In Ireland, it is customary on
St Brigid's Day to weave a
Brigid's cross from rushes, which is hung over doors and windows to protect the household from fire, lightning, illness and evil spirits. In ancient Ireland and even up to relatively modern times, it was formerly the custom at
Samhain to weave a cross of sticks and straw called a 'parshell' or 'parshall', which was fixed over the doorway to ward off bad luck, illness, and
witchcraft.
Eyes Eyes were often painted to ward off the
evil eye. An exaggerated apotropaic eye or a pair of eyes were painted on Greek drinking vessels called
kylikes (
eye-cups) from the 6th century BCE up until the end of the end of the
classical period. The exaggerated eyes may have been intended to prevent
evil spirits from entering the mouth while drinking.
Fishing boats in some parts of the
Mediterranean region still have stylised eyes painted on the bows. The defunct
Turkish budget airline,
Fly Air, adopted the symbol () on the
vertical stabilizer (fin) of its aeroplanes. The apotropaic
Yiddish expression, (in modern
Hebrew, ), is somewhat equivalent to the expression, "
knock on wood."
Faces Among the ancient Greeks, the most widely used image intended to avert evil was that of the
Gorgon, the head of which now may be called the
Gorgoneion, which features wild eyes, fangs, and protruding tongue. The full figure of the Gorgon holds the apex of the oldest remaining
Greek temple where she is flanked by two lionesses. The Gorgon head was mounted on the
aegis and shield of
Athena. , flanked by
lionesses and showing her belt clasp of serpents; the
pediment of the 580 BCE
temple of Artemis in Corfu.
Archaeological Museum of Corfu.People believed that the doorways and windows of buildings were particularly vulnerable to the entry or passage of
evil. In ancient Greece, grotesque,
satyr-like bearded faces, sometimes with the pointed cap of the workman, were carved over the doors of ovens and kilns, to protect the work from fire and mishap. Later, on
churches and
castles,
gargoyles or other
grotesque faces and figures such as
sheela na gigs and
hunky punks were carved to frighten away
witches and other malign influences. Figures may also have been carved at fireplaces or chimneys; in some cases, simple geometric or letter carvings were used for these. When a wooden post was used to support a chimney opening, this was often an easier material for amateur carving. To discourage witchcraft,
rowan wood may have been chosen for the post or mantel. Similarly the grotesque faces carved into
pumpkin lanterns (and their earlier counterparts, made from
turnips,
swedes or
beets) at
Halloween are meant to avert evil: this season was
Samhain, the
Celtic new year. As a "time between times", it was believed to be a period when
souls of the dead and other dangerous spirits walked the earth. Many European peoples had such associations with the period following the harvest in the fall (for instance the
Celtic calendar).
Phalluses In
Ancient Greece,
phalloi were believed to have apotropaic qualities. Often stone
reliefs would be placed above doorways, and three-dimensional versions were built across the Greek world. Most notable of these were the urban monuments found on the island of
Delos. The phallus was also an apotropaic symbol for the ancient Romans. These are known as
fascinum. A similar use of phallic representations to ward off the evil eye remains popular in modern
Bhutan. It is associated with the 500-year-old
Buddhist tradition of
Drukpa Kunley.
Reflective items and prisms , in the
Jewish Museum of Switzerland's collection.
Mirrors and other shiny reflective objects were believed to deflect the evil eye. Traditional English "Plough Jags" (performers of a regional variant of the
mummers play) sometimes decorated their costumes (particularly their hats) with shiny items, to the extent of borrowing
silver plate for the purpose. "Witch balls" are shiny
blown glass ornaments, such as
Christmas baubles, that were hung in windows. Similarly, the Chinese
Bagua mirror is usually installed to ward off negative energy and protect the entryways of residences. An example of the use of shiny apotropaic objects in
Judaism can be found in the so-called "Halsgezeige" or textile neckbands used in the birthing customs of the Franco-German border region. Shiny coins or colourful stones would be sewn onto the neckband or on a central amulet in order to distract the
evil eye. These neckbands were worn by women in childbirth and by young boys during their
Brit Milah ceremony. This custom continued until the early 20th century. In the American Southwest,
crystals, due to their semitransparency, are used by shamans to practice
clairvoyance, identify objects created or enchanted by witches, and distinguish diseases (e.g., through charging medicine water).
Horseshoes In
Western culture, a
horseshoe was often nailed up over, or close by, doorways (see
Oakham's horseshoes). Model horseshoes (of card or plastic) are given as good-luck tokens, particularly at
weddings, and small paper horseshoes feature in
confetti.
Objects buried in walls In early modern Europe, certain objects were buried in the walls of houses to protect the household from
witchcraft. These included specially-prepared
witch bottles,
horse skulls and the bodies of
dried cats, as well as shoes (see
concealed shoes). In the American Southwest, to fortify buildings in
Acoma residences for future battles, priests embed
projectile points into walls to impart their lightning energy, or anima, into the structures.
Markings on buildings Apotropaic marks, also called 'witch marks' or 'anti-witch marks' in Europe, are symbols or patterns scratched on the walls, beams and thresholds of buildings to protect them from witchcraft or evil spirits. They have many forms; in Britain they are often
flower-like patterns of overlapping circles. such as
hexafoils.
Taper burn marks on thresholds of early modern buildings are also thought to be apotropaic marks. Other types of mark include the intertwined letters V and M or a double V (for the protector, the
Virgin Mary, alias ), and crisscrossing lines to confuse any spirits that might try to follow them. At the
Bradford-on-Avon Tithe Barn, a
flower-like pattern of overlapping circles is incised into a stone in the wall. Similar marks of overlapping circles have been found on a window sill dated about 1616 at
Owlpen Manor in Gloucestershire, as well as
taper burn marks on the jambs of a medieval door frame. The marks are most common near places where witches were thought to be able to enter, whether doors, windows or chimneys. For example, during works at
Knole, near
Sevenoaks in Kent, in 1609, oak beams beneath floors, particularly near fireplaces, were scorched and carved with scratched witch marks to prevent witches and demons from coming down the chimney. Marks have been found in buildings including
Knole House,
Shakespeare's Birthplace in
Stratford-upon-Avon, the
Tower of London, and many churches. A collection of over 100 marks – previously thought to be graffiti – was discovered in 2019 on the walls of a cave network at
Creswell Crags in Nottinghamshire.
Gainsborough Old Hall has 20, the most of any English Heritage property, concentrated in the servant's quarters alongside curses about the owner
William Hickman.
Dreamcatchers In
Ojibwe culture,
dreamcatchers woven like a spider's web are traditionally placed above an infant's cradle as a form of spiritual protection. In
Lakota culture, dream catchers are believed to catch the good dreams that are blown around at night, so that they can then enter the sleeping person, while the bad dreams would pass through and burn up.
Others shows a procession of protective deities. It was used in birth rituals, perhaps to draw a
magic circle around the mother and child. Items and symbols such as crosses,
crucifixes,
silver bullets, wild
roses and
garlic were believed to ward off or destroy
vampires. In
Mesopotamia,
incantation bowls were used to ward off evil.
Peisistratus hung the figure of a kind of grasshopper before the
Acropolis of Athens as apotropaic magic. In
Roman art, envy was thought to bring bad luck to the person envied. To avoid envy,
Romans sought to incite laughter in their guests by using humorous images. Images such as large phalluses (see
fascinus), deformities such as hunchbacks, or
Pygmies and other non-Roman subjects were common. Romans saw
deformity as comical and believed that such images could be used to deflect the evil eye. In Europe, apotropaic
figureheads carved onto the prow of sailing ships are considered to have been a replacement for the sacrifice of a
thrall during the
Age of Invasions by Saxon and Viking sailors, to avoid bad luck on the voyage.
Dredging the Thames under
London Bridge led to the discovery of a large number of bent and broken knives, daggers, swords and coins, from the modern period and dating back to Celtic times. This custom seems to have been to avoid bad luck, particularly when setting off on a voyage. Similarly, the burial of an old boot or shoe by the
lintel of the back door of a house seems to have had a similar intention. In
Ireland and
Great Britain,
magpies are traditionally thought to bring bad luck. Many people repeated various rhymes or
salutations to placate them. Apotropaic marks such as the initials of the
Virgin Mary were scratched near the openings of buildings in England to ward off witches.
Projectile points, described in
Pueblo oral traditions as sacred weapons created by lightning strikes and as objects with dual power (both to kill and to protect), are used as altar decorations, amulets, or attachments to cradle boards. Shells in these cultures are often perceived as materials that add magical powers to water and as instruments for ritual sprinkling. == Rituals and actions ==