Cheetah

The vernacular name "cheetah" is derived from Hindustani and (). This in turn comes from () meaning 'variegated', 'adorned' or 'painted'. In the past, the cheetah was often called "hunting leopard" because they could be tamed and used for coursing. The generic name Acinonyx probably derives from the combination of two Greek words: () meaning 'unmoved' or 'motionless', and () meaning 'nail' or 'hoof'. A rough translation is "immobile nails", a reference to the cheetah's limited ability to retract its claws. A similar meaning can be obtained by the combination of the Greek prefix a– (implying a lack of) and () meaning 'to move' or 'to set in motion'. The specific name is Latin for 'crested, having a mane'. A few old generic names such as Cynailurus and Cynofelis allude to the similarities between the cheetah and canids. ==Taxonomy==

'' (1877)|alt=Illustration of the woolly cheetah (Felis lanea) published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London in 1877 In 1777, Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber described the cheetah based on a skin from the Cape of Good Hope and gave it the scientific name Felis jubatus. Joshua Brookes proposed the generic name Acinonyx in 1828. In 1917, Reginald Innes Pocock placed the cheetah in a subfamily of its own, Acinonychinae, given its striking morphological resemblance to the greyhound and significant deviation from typical felid features; the cheetah was classified in Felinae in later taxonomic revisions. A South African specimen with notably dense fur was proposed as (Felis lanea) by Philip Sclater in 1877 and became known as the "woolly cheetah". Its classification as a species was mostly disputed. There has been considerable confusion in the nomenclature of the cheetah and leopard (Panthera pardus) as authors often confused the two; some considered "hunting leopards" an independent species, or equal to the leopard. Subspecies In 1975, five cheetah subspecies were considered valid taxa: A. j. hecki, A. j. jubatus, A. j. raineyi, A. j. soemmeringii and A. j. venaticus. In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and recognised these four subspecies as valid. Their details are tabulated below: ==Phylogeny and evolution==

}} }} The cheetah's closest relatives are the cougar (Puma concolor) and the jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi). Together, these three species form the Puma lineage, one of the eight lineages of the extant felids; the Puma lineage genetically diverged from the rest . The sister group of the Puma lineage is a clade of smaller Old World cats that includes the genera Felis, Otocolobus and Prionailurus. The oldest cheetah fossils, excavated in eastern and southern Africa, date to ; the earliest known specimen from South Africa is from the lowermost deposits of the Silberberg Grotto (Sterkfontein). The first occurrence of the modern species A. jubatus in Africa may come from Cooper's D, a site in South Africa dating back to , during the Calabrian stage. Fossil remains from Europe are limited to a few Middle Pleistocene specimens from Hundsheim (Austria) and Mosbach Sands (Germany). Cheetah-like cats are known from as late as 10,000 years ago from the Old World. The giant cheetah (A. pardinensis), significantly larger and slower compared to the modern cheetah, occurred in Eurasia and eastern and southern Africa in the Villafranchian period roughly . In the Middle Pleistocene a smaller cheetah, A. intermedius, ranged from Europe to China. The modern cheetah appeared in Africa around ; its fossil record is restricted to Africa. Adams pointed out that North American and Old World cheetah-like cats may have had a common ancestor, and Acinonyx might have originated in North America instead of Eurasia. However, subsequent research has shown that Miracinonyx is phylogenetically closer to the cougar than the cheetah; the similarities to cheetahs have been attributed to parallel evolution. Some suggest that North American cheetahs possibly migrated to Asia via the Bering Strait, then dispersed southward to Africa through Eurasia at least 100,000 years ago; some authors have expressed doubt over the occurrence of cheetah-like cats in North America, and instead suppose the modern cheetah to have evolved from Asian populations that eventually spread to Africa. The cheetah is thought to have experienced two population bottlenecks that greatly decreased the genetic variability in populations; one occurred about 100,000 years ago that has been correlated to migration from North America to Asia, and the second 10,000–12,000 years ago in Africa, possibly as part of the Late Pleistocene extinction event. ==Genetics==

The diploid number of chromosomes in the cheetah is 38, the same as in most other felids. The cheetah was the first felid observed to have unusually low genetic variability among individuals, which has led to poor breeding in captivity, increased spermatozoal defects, high juvenile mortality and increased susceptibility to diseases and infections. A prominent instance was the deadly feline coronavirus outbreak in the cheetah breeding facility at Wildlife Safari in Winston, Oregon in 1983 which had a mortality rate of 60%, higher than that recorded for previous epizootics of feline infectious peritonitis in any felid. The remarkable homogeneity in cheetah genes has been demonstrated by experiments involving the major histocompatibility complex (MHC); unless the MHC genes are highly homogeneous in a population, skin grafts exchanged between a pair of unrelated individuals would be rejected. Skin grafts exchanged between unrelated cheetahs are accepted well and heal, as if their genetic makeup were the same. The low genetic diversity is thought to have been created by two population bottlenecks from about 100,000 years and about 12,000 years ago, respectively. In Manicaland, Zimbabwe, it was known as nsuifisi and thought to be a cross between a leopard and a hyena. In 1927, Pocock described these individuals as a new species by the name of Acinonyx rex ("king cheetah"). However, in the absence of proof to support his claim, he withdrew his proposal in 1939. Abel Chapman considered it a colour morph of the normally spotted cheetah. Since 1927, the king cheetah has been reported five more times in the wild in Zimbabwe, Botswana and northern Transvaal; one was photographed in 1975. In 1981, two female cheetahs that had mated with a wild male from Transvaal at the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre (South Africa) gave birth to one king cheetah each; subsequently, more king cheetahs were born at the centre. The appearance is caused by reinforcement of a recessive allele; hence if two mating cheetahs are heterozygous carriers of the mutated allele, a quarter of their offspring can be expected to be king cheetahs. ==Characteristics==

The cheetah is a slim-bodied, spotted cat characterised by a small, streamlined head, a short snout, black tear-like facial streaks, a deep chest, long limbs and a long tail. Its slim, canid-like form is highly adapted for running, and contrasts sharply with the bulky body of the Panthera genus members and cougars. Cubs born in the wild weigh at birth, while those born in captivity tend to be larger and weigh around . Besides the clearly visible spots, there are other faint, irregular black marks on the coat. There is a short, rough mane, covering at least along the neck and the shoulders; this feature is more prominent in males. The mane starts out as a cape of long, loose blue to grey hair in juveniles. Saharan cheetahs have canid-like slim faces. The ears are small, short and rounded; they are tawny at the base and on the edges and marked with black patches on the back. The eyes are set high and have round pupils. The long tail, with a bushy white tuft at the end, measures . While the first two-thirds of the tail are covered in spots, the final third is marked with four to six dark rings or stripes. Although similar at first glance, the leopard has rosettes instead of spots and does not have tear streaks. The serval also resembles the cheetah, but its spots fuse to form stripes on the back. Internal anatomy The cheetah has a physiology specialised for sprinting; its thigh muscles are 50% heavier than predicted for quadrupedal mammals of the same body mass, while those of a lion or tiger closes to what is predicted for their body mass. It has a concentration of type IIx muscle fibers of 50.1% in the hindlimbs, 40% in the neck and trunk, and 36% in the forelimbs. Betz cells in primary motor cortex are exceptionally large for its brain mass and would be to innervate more type IIx muscle fibers and larger locomotor muscles. The cheetah cannot utilise oxygen at the same level as other mammals; its mitochondrial volume represents only 3.7% of the total volume of the muscle fibers, compared to 6.5–10.7% in dogs and ponies. The slightly curved claws are shorter and straighter than those of other cats, lack a protective sheath and are partly retractile. The claws are blunt due to lack of protection. The extension of its stride comes mainly from the flexion of the spine before the feet strike the ground during air suspension phases. Its flexed trunk length represents only 67% of its extended trunk length, compared to 80–90% of a horse. The cheetah lumbar region is the longest among carnivore mammals, accounting for half of the combined length of its spine's thoracic and lumbar regions. The cheetah's tail does not serve as counterbalance, as it represents only 2% of its body mass, thereby not providing significant moment of inertia. The cheetah's tail serves as a rudder, as the thick fur increases its effective area by 40%, thereby increasing aerodynamic drag. The roughly triangular skull has light, narrow bones, and the sagittal crest is poorly developed, possibly to reduce weight and enhance speed. The mouth can not be opened as widely as in other cats given the shorter length of muscles between the jaw and the skull. The cheetah's canines have no diastema behind them when the jaws close, as the top and bottom cheek teeth show extensive overlap. The cheetah has relatively elongated and blade-like shape carnassial teeth, with reduced lingual cusps, which is thought to be an adaptation to quickly consume the flesh of prey before larger predators arrive. Speed and acceleration filmed at 1200 frames per second showing the movement of Sarah, the fastest recorded cheetah, over a set run|alt=Video of the cheetah Sarah sprinting over a set run The cheetah is the fastest land animal, capable of overtaking pronghorns and fast antelopes, even when they have a head start. Cheetahs can easily outrun greyhounds in a race. A popular figure of has been discredited due to a faulty measurement method. An 11-year-old cheetah from the Cincinnati Zoo set a record by running at a maximum speed of 98 km/h (61 mph). Cheetahs equipped with GPS collars hunted at speeds lower than the highest speeds attained; the average maximum running speed recorded during hunts was , while highest speed was . The cheetah uses its maximum running speed only to close the distance with the prey in straight line, then it follows closely during twists in zigzag that it make trying to escape. For comparison, polo horses can go from in 3.6 seconds. One stride of a galloping cheetah measures ; the stride length and the number of jumps increases with speed. It has been estimated that a cheetah at full speed could take 4 strides per second. During more than half the duration of the sprint, the cheetah has all four limbs in the air, increasing the stride length. ==Distribution and habitat ==

In eastern and southern Africa, the cheetah occurs mostly in savannas like the Kalahari and Serengeti. In central, northern and western Africa, it inhabits arid mountain ranges and valleys; in the harsh climate of the Sahara, it prefers high mountains, which receive more rainfall than the surrounding desert. The vegetation and water resources in these mountains support antelopes. In Iran, it occurs in hilly terrain of deserts at elevations up to , where annual precipitation is generally below ; the primary vegetation in these areas is thinly distributed shrubs, less than tall. Historical range .|alt=Maharaja Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo standing beside the bodies of the last three wild cheetahs in India In prehistoric times, the cheetah was distributed throughout Africa, Western and Central Asia. A few centuries ago the cheetah was abundant in India, and its range coincided with the distribution of major prey like the blackbuck. The last confirmed sighting in India was of a cheetah that drowned in a well near Hyderabad in 1957. The cheetah's range in the Soviet Union encompassed the "desert plains of Middle Asia and southern Kazakhstan and the eastern Trans-Caucasus". During the Middle Ages, the cheetah ranged as far as western Georgia and probably survived in the Kura-Aras lowland and central Aras River valley until the 18th century, though it went extinct in the region following the decline of goitered gazelles and due to human persecution. By the mid-20th century, the cheetah was reportedly "still quite extensively if sparsely distributed throughout the region west of the Amu Darya and Aral Sea, but has been vanishing very rapidly". In 1975, the cheetah population was estimated at 15,000 individuals throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, following the first survey in this region by Norman Myers. The range covered most of eastern and southern Africa, except for the desert region on the western coast of modern-day Angola and Namibia. In the following years, cheetah populations across the region have become smaller and more fragmented as the natural habitat has been modified significantly. Cheetah mummies dating back to 4223–127 YBP have been found in a cave system in Saudi Arabia. Present distribution The cheetah occurs mostly in eastern and southern Africa; its presence in Asia is limited to the central deserts of Iran, though there have been unconfirmed reports of sightings in Afghanistan, Iraq and Pakistan in the last few decades. The largest population of nearly 4,000 individuals is sparsely distributed over Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia. Another population in Kenya and Tanzania comprises about 1,000 individuals. All other cheetahs occur in small, fragmented groups of less than 100 individuals each. Populations are thought to be declining. ==Ecology and behaviour==

Cheetahs are active mainly during the day, whereas that competitors such as spotted hyenas and lions are active mainly at night. These larger carnivores can kill cheetahs and steal their kills; A coalition generally has a greater chance of encountering and acquiring females for mating; however, its large membership demands greater resources than do solitary males. Male cheetahs seem to be more tolerant to cubs that are not their offspring than other felids, and supposed evidence of infanticide is considered circumstantial. Home ranges and territories Female cheetahs tend to occupy larger home ranges than males. The way vocalisations are produced have some differences compared to the domestic cat, such as cheetah exhalations are louder. Listed below are some commonly recorded vocalisations observed in cheetahs: • Chirping: A chirp (or a "stutter-bark") is an intense bird-like call and lasts less than a second. Cheetahs chirp when they are excited, for instance, when gathered around a kill. Other uses include summoning concealed or lost cubs by the mother, or as a greeting or courtship between adults. • Churring (or churtling): A churr is a shrill, staccato call that can last up to two seconds. Churring and chirping have been noted for their similarity to the soft and loud roars of the lion. It is produced in similar context as chirping, but a study of feeding cheetahs found chirping to be much more common. • Agonistic sounds: These include bleating, coughing, growling, hissing, meowing and moaning (or yowling). A bleat indicates distress, for instance when a cheetah confronts a predator that has stolen its kill. Growls, hisses and moans are accompanied by multiple, strong hits on the ground with the front paw, during which the cheetah may retreat by a few metres. A meow, though a versatile call, is typically associated with discomfort or irritation. • Other vocalisations: Individuals can make a gurgling noise as part of a close, amicable interaction. In Kruger National Park there are exceptional records of two giraffe calves and two cape buffalo calves hunted by cheetahs. The diet of the Asiatic cheetah consists of chinkara, desert hare, goitered gazelle, urial, wild goats, and livestock; in India cheetahs used to prey mostly on blackbuck. Prey preferences and hunting success vary with the age, sex, number of cheetahs involved in the hunt, and the vigilance of the prey. Generally, only male coalitions or mother with cubs try to kill larger prey; mothers with cubs look out for larger prey more frequently. Individuals on the periphery of the prey herd are common targets; vigilant prey which react quickly on seeing a cheetah are not preferred. Cheetahs use their vision to hunt; they keep a lookout for prey from resting sites or low branches. The cheetah can close without hiding within 60–70 m (200–230 ft) of the prey, before sprinting for them. Alternatively the cheetah can stalk in cover and close to within 30m. A stalking cheetah assumes a partially crouched posture, with the head lower than the shoulders; it moves slowly and remains still at times. In areas of minimal cover, the cheetah may approach within of the prey and start the chase. A cheetah can give up if it is detected early. In a 2013 study, the length of chases averaged , and the longest run measured . Such a fall during a high-speed chase may cause the prey to collapse hard enough to break its limbs. Like other cats, a cheetah is exhausted after killing their prey and rests beside the kill, panting for 20–30 minutes, while a lion rest for 15–40 minutes. Meanwhile, cheetahs nearby, who did not take part in the hunt, might feed on the kill immediately. Groups of cheetah consume the kill peacefully, though minor noises and snapping may be observed. However, on a daily basis, a cheetah feeds on around of meat. Cheetahs move their heads from side to side so the blade-like shape carnassial teeth tear the flesh, which can then be swallowed without chewing. They typically begin with the hindquarters where the tissue is the softest, and then progress toward the abdomen and the spine. Ribs are chewed on at the ends, and the limbs are not generally torn apart while eating. Unless the prey is very small, the skeleton is left almost intact. Males and single females spend more time eating as quickly as possible after kill its prey, while mothers with cubs spend more time watching their surroundings while their cubs eat. A few cases of cheetahs scavenging carcasses they did not hunt have been observed, including an incident of a mother and her three 15-month cubs stealing a kill of a lone spotted hyena. The cheetah appears to have a higher hunting success rate than other predators; in the Serengeti, its success rate for hunting Thomson gazelles is 70%, whereas for the African wild dog it is 57%, for the spotted hyena 33%, and for the lion 26%. In Kruger National Park, its success rate for hunting impalas is 20.7% whereas that of the leopard is 16%. Reproduction and life cycle The cheetah breeds throughout the year; females are polyestrous and induced ovulators with an estrous cycle of 12 days on average that can vary from three days to a month. They have their first litter at two to three years of age and can conceive again after 17 to 20 months from giving birth, or even sooner if a whole litter is lost. Males can breed at less than two years of age in captivity, but this may be delayed in the wild until the male acquires a territory. Urine-marking in males can become more pronounced when a female in their vicinity comes into estrus. Males, sometimes even those in coalitions, fight among one another to secure access to the female. Often one male will eventually win dominance over the others and mate with the female, though a female can mate with different males. Mating begins with the male approaching the female, who lies down on the ground; individuals often chirp, purr or yelp at this time. No courtship behaviour is observed; the male immediately secures hold of the female's nape, and copulation takes place. The pair then ignore each other, but meet and copulate a few more times three to five times a day for the next two to three days before finally parting ways. After a gestation of nearly three months, a litter of up six to eight cubs is born. A study suggested that this mane gives a cheetah cub the appearance of a honey badger, and could act as camouflage from attacks by these badgers or predators that tend to avoid them. Mothers keep their cubs hidden in dense vegetation for the first two months and nurse in the early morning. The mother is extremely vigilant at this stage; she stays within of the lair, frequently visits her cubs, moves them every five to six days, and remains with them after dark. Despite trying to make minimal noise, she cannot generally defend her litter from predators. Predators are the main cause of death for cubs; of the total deaths, 58.3% were due to predators in the Serengeti, and 88.9% were in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Deaths also occur from starvation if their mothers abandon them, fires, or pneumonia because of exposure to bad weather. The overall juvenile survival rate for cheetahs is 35.7% in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and 34.3% in the Kalahari Desert, compared to a juvenile survival rate of 37% for leopards in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve; high juvenile mortality appears to be a natural part of population dynamics among predators. Cubs start coming out of the lair at two months of age, trailing after their mother wherever she goes. At this point the mother nurses less and brings solid food to the cubs; they retreat away from the carcass in fear initially, but gradually start eating it. The cubs might purr as the mother licks them clean after the meal. Weaning occurs at four to six months. To train her cubs in hunting, the mother will catch and let go of live prey in front of her cubs. Cubs as young as six months try to capture small prey like hares and young gazelles. However, they may have to wait until as long as 15 months of age to make a successful kill on their own. At around 20 months, offspring become independent; mothers might have conceived again by then. Siblings may remain together for a few more months before parting ways. While females stay close to their mothers, males move farther off. The lifespan of wild cheetahs is 14 to 15 years for females, and their reproductive cycle typically ends by 12 years of age; males generally live as long as ten years. Cheetahs sometimes attempt to protect their kills from larger carnivores by making threatening vocalizations and lunges, but retreat if it persist. Cheetah mothers have been observed to drive off leopards threatening their cubs, Unlike African wild dogs, cheetah population density in an area remain stable even when lion density increases, despite the high risk of juvenile mortality; their mainly solitary nature and low profile probably attracts little attention. One record of a cheetah is known that cooperated with black-backed jackals in bringing down prey. ==Threats==

The cheetah is threatened by several factors, like habitat loss and fragmentation of populations. Habitat loss is caused mainly by the introduction of commercial land use, such as agriculture and industry. Moreover, the species apparently requires a sizeable area to live in as indicated by its low population densities. Shortage of prey and conflict with other species such as humans and large carnivores are other major threats. The cheetah appears to be less capable of coexisting with humans than the leopard. With 76% of its range consisting of unprotected land, the cheetah is often targeted by farmers and pastoralists who attempt to protect their livestock, especially in Namibia. Illegal wildlife trade and trafficking is another problem in some places (like Ethiopia). Some tribes, like the Maasai people in Tanzania, have been reported to use cheetah skins in ceremonies. Roadkill is a threat in areas where roads have been constructed in natural habitats or through protected areas; roadkilled cheetahs were found in Kalmand, Touran National Park and Bafq in Iran. The reduced genetic variability makes cheetahs more vulnerable to diseases; however, the threat posed by infectious diseases may be minor, given the low population densities and hence a reduced chance of infection. ==Conservation==

The cheetah has been classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List; it is listed under AppendixI of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals and AppendixI of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. In Africa Until the 1970s, cheetahs and other carnivores were frequently killed to protect livestock in Africa. Gradually the understanding of cheetah ecology increased and their falling numbers became a matter of concern. The De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre was set up in 1971 in South Africa to provide care for wild cheetahs regularly trapped or injured by Namibian farmers. The Cheetah Conservation Fund, founded in 1990 in Namibia, put efforts into field research and education about cheetahs on the global platform. "Bushblok" is an initiative to restore habitat systematically through targeted bush thinning and biomass utilisation. Several more cheetah-specific conservation programmes have since been established, like Cheetah Outreach in South Africa. The Range Wide Conservation Program for Cheetah and African Wild Dogs began in 2007 as a joint initiative of the IUCN Cat and Canid Specialist Groups, the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Zoological Society of London. National conservation plans have been developed for several African countries. In 2014, the CITES Standing Committee recognised the cheetah as a "species of priority" in its strategies in northeastern Africa to counter wildlife trafficking. The cheetah was reintroduced in Malawi in 2017. In Asia at the Cheetah Outreach Centre near Cape Town in 2010, during his visit to discuss cheetah translocation from South Africa to India|alt=Jairam Ramesh stroking the back of a cheetah at the Cheetah Outreach Centre near Cape Town in 2010 In 2001, the Iranian government collaborated with the CCF, the IUCN, Panthera Corporation, United Nations Development Programme and the Wildlife Conservation Society on the Conservation of Asiatic Cheetah Project (CACP) to protect the natural habitat of the Asiatic cheetah and its prey. In 2004, the Iranian Centre for Sustainable Development (CENESTA) conducted an international workshop to discuss conservation plans with local stakeholders. The Iranian Cheetah Strategic Planning meet in 2010 formulated a five-year conservation plan for Asiatic cheetahs. During the early 2000s scientists from the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (Hyderabad) proposed a plan to clone Asiatic cheetahs from Iran for reintroduction in India, but Iran denied the proposal. In September 2009, the Minister of Environment and Forests assigned the Wildlife Trust of India and the Wildlife Institute of India with examining the potential of importing African cheetahs to India. Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary and Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary were suggested as reintroduction sites for the cheetah because of the high prey density. However, plans for reintroduction were stalled in May 2012 by the Supreme Court of India because of a political dispute and concerns over introducing a non-native species to the country. Opponents stated the plan was "not a case of intentional movement of an organism into a part of its native range". On 28 January 2020, the Supreme Court allowed the central government to introduce cheetahs to a suitable habitat in India on an experimental basis to see if they can adapt to it. In 2020, India signed a memorandum of understanding with Namibia as part of Project Cheetah. In July 2022, it was announced that eight cheetahs would be transferred from Namibia to India in August. The eight cheetahs were released into Kuno National Park on 17 September 2022. Since their introduction, they gave birth to 17 cubs. However, by September 2024, eight adult cheetahs and four cubs already died. ==Interaction with humans==

Taming The cheetah has been tamed easily since antiquity by the nobility. According to historians such as Heinz Friederichs and Burchard Brentjes, the cheetah was first tamed in Sumer and this gradually spread out to central and northern Africa, from where it reached India. The evidence for this is mainly pictorial; for instance, a Sumerian seal dating back to , featuring a long-legged leashed animal has fueled speculation that the cheetah was first tamed in Sumer. However, Thomas Allsen argues that the depicted animal might be a large dog. Other historians, such as Frederick Zeuner, have opined that ancient Egyptians were the first to tame the cheetah, from where it gradually spread into central Asia, Iran and India.