ic burial mound (
tumulus) with chamber, India Stupas may have originated as pre-Buddhist
tumuli in which
śramaṇas were buried in a seated position, called
caitya. In early Buddhist inscriptions in India,
stupa and
caitya appear to be almost interchangeable, though
caitya has a broader meaning, and unlike
stupa does not define an
architectural form. In pre-Buddhist India,
caitya was a term for a shrine, sanctuary, or holy place in the landscape, generally outdoors, inhabited by, or sacred to, a particular deity. In the
Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, near the end of his life, the Buddha remarks to
Ananda how beautiful are the various
caitya around
Vaishali. In later times and in other countries,
cetiya/caitya implies the presence of important relics. Both words have forms prefixed by
maha for "great", "large", or "important", but scholars find the difference between a
mahastupa and a
stupa, or
mahacetiya and
cetiya, hard to pin down. Some authors have suggested that stupas were derived from a wider cultural tradition from the
Mediterranean to the
Ganges Valley and can be related to the conical mounds on circular bases from the 8th century BCE that are found in
Phrygia (tomb of
Midas, 8th c. BCE),
Lydia (tomb of
Alyattes, 6th c. BCE), or in
Phoenicia (tombs of
Amrit, 5th c. BCE). Some authors suggest stupas emerged from
megalithic mound burials with chambers, which likely represent proto-stupas. Archaeologists in India have observed that a number of early Buddhist stupas or burials are found in the vicinity of much older, pre-historic burials, including megalithic burial sites. This includes sites associated with the
Indus Valley Civilization, where broken Indus-era pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials. Scholars have noted structural and functional features of the stupa (including its general mound shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone, relic chamber, or wooden railing) with both pre-
Mauryan-era cairn and pre-historic megalithic "round mound" burials with chambers found in India, which likely represent a "proto-stupa". In
Dholavira, an archeological site associated with the Indus Valley Civilization, there are several large and high "hemispherical monuments" of tumulus with brick-masonry found with burial chambers inside. Among them, Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds have been excavated. They consist of a deep and wide rock-cut chamber, surrounded on the ground by a massive circular mud-brick structure made in two tiers, and filled in and topped with earth to form a domed shape. There is also evidence of plastering on the exterior of Tumulus-1, bearing a 10-mm-thick
plaster of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry. These forms of hemispherical monuments or tumulus of brick masonry with similar layouts may have been inspirations for later stupas. Some stupas not believed to have been looted have been found empty when excavated, as have some prehistoric cairn sites, and animal bones are suspected to have occasionally been deposited at both types of sites.
Mounds for the relics of the Buddha (5th century BCE) , built by the
Licchavis, and possibly the earliest archaeologically known stupa, dating to the 5th century BCE stupa is one of the earliest surviving stupas. Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped structure, started to be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha. After his
parinirvana, Buddha's remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds, with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas, in
Rajagriha,
Vaishali,
Kapilavastu,
Allakappa,
Ramagrama,
Pava,
Kushinagar, and
Vethapida. Lars Fogelin has stated that the
Relic Stupa of Vaishali is likely the earliest archaeologically known stupa.
Guard rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a
coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.
Expansion under Ashoka (250 BCE) According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor
Ashoka (rule: 273–232 BCE) recovered the relics of the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the
Ramagrama stupa), and erected 84,000 stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date originally from the time of Ashoka, such as
Sanchi or
Kesariya, where he also erected pillars with his inscriptions, and possibly
Bharhut,
Amaravati, or
Dharmarajika. Ashoka also established the
Pillars of Ashoka throughout his realm, generally next to Buddhist stupas. The first known appearance of the word "stupa" is from
an inscribed dedication by Ashoka on the
Nigali Sagar pillar (spelled in
Pali in the
Brahmi script as 𑀣𑀼𑀩𑁂
thube ).
Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE) Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts at
Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE),
Bodh Gaya (60 BCE),
Mathura (125–60 BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of the
toranas (1st century BCE/CE), and then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE). The decorative embellishment of stupas also underwent considerable development in the northwest, in the area of
Gandhara, with instances such as the
Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with
Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE) or the
Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE). Sanchi Stupa number 2 KSP 3660.jpg|
Sanchi Stupa No.2, the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs, c. 125 BCE East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg|East Gateway and Railings of
Bharhut Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115 BCE, toranas: 75 BCE. Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg|The Great Stupa at Sanchi Decorated toranas built from the 1st c. BCE to the 1st c. CE.
Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE–5th century CE) The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread to
Central Asia, China, and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa (and related artistic or
architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative elements, leading eventually to the development of the
pagoda tower. The main stupa types are, in chronological order: • The
Dharmarajika Stupa, with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar stupas are the
Butkara Stupa, the
Manikyala stupa, or the Chakpat stupa. • The
Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and
quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara miniatures represent this type (1st century CE). • The
Loriyan Tangai stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in many ways the classic Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE). • The near-pyramidal
Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE). • The
cruciform type, as in the
Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal directions (4th century CE). • The towering design of the second
Kanishka Stupa (4th–5th century CE). Restored_view_of_the_Manikyala_Stupa.jpg|
Manikyala Stupa, from the period of
Kaniska I StupaWithPillarsGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|A model resembling the
Saidu Sharif Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st century CE). Loriyan Tangai complete Stupa.jpg|
Loriyan Tangai decorated stupa, in the
Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (2nd century CE). Jaulian Stupa A11 reliquary.jpg|A tower-shaped stupa, thought to be the design of the second (rebuilt)
Kanishka Stupa,
Jaulian monastery Stupa Reliquary Kushan period, about 2nd century CE.jpg|Stupa-shaped reliquary,
Kushan period, about 2nd century CE
Origin of the pyramidal temple It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the design of the stepped stupas that developed in Gandhara. The
Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars. The structure is crowned by the shape of a hemispherical stupa topped by
finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan stupas such as those seen in
Jaulian. Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the
Gupta period (5th century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in
Kumrahar and dated to 150–200 CE, based on its dated
Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of
Huvishka coins, suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE. This is confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya. This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the
aniconic stupa dedicated to the cult of relics, to the
iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This design was influential in the development of later
Hindu temples.
Expansion in Asia Asian stupas (523 CE) is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model. stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh Stupa architecture was adopted in
Southeast and
East Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. Some scholars hold that
torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE–11th century CE). In
Tibet, the stupa became the chorten, and the pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general, however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia, while "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia that can be entered and that may be used for secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma tend to be referred to as "pagodas". Stupas were built in
Sri Lanka soon after
Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism. The first was the
Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built over the years, including the
Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura.
Development of the pagoda The Asian words for pagoda (
tā in Chinese, ''t'ap
in Korean, tháp
in Vietnamese, tō
in Japanese) are all thought to derive from the Pali word for stupa, thupa
, with the Sanskrit pronunciation being stupa''. In particular the type of the tower-like stupa, the last stage of Gandharan stupa development, visible in the second
Kanishka Stupa (4th century), is thought to be the precursor of the tower stupas in
Turkestan and the Chinese pagodas such as
Songyue Pagoda (523 CE). ==Notable stupas==