Spread , Greek goddess of victory, from
Vani,
Georgia Greek culture was at its height of world influence in the Hellenistic period. Hellenism or at least
Philhellenism reached most regions on the frontiers of the Hellenistic kingdoms. Though some of these regions were not ruled by Greeks or even Greek speaking elites, Hellenistic influence can be seen in the historical record and
material culture of these regions. Other regions had established contact with Greek colonies before this period, and simply saw a continued process of
Hellenization and intermixing. The spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Near East and Asia owed much to the development of newly founded cities and deliberate
colonization policies by the successor states, which in turn was necessary for maintaining their military forces. Settlements such as
Ai-Khanoum, on trade routes, allowed Greek culture to mix and spread. The language of Philip II's and Alexander's court and army (which was made up of various Greek and non-Greek speaking peoples) was a version of
Attic Greek, and over time this language developed into
Koine, the
lingua franca of the successor states. The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through
ancient Greek coinage. Portraits became more realistic, and the obverse of the coin was often used to display a propagandistic image, commemorating an event or displaying the image of a favored god. The use of Greek-style portraits and Greek language continued under the Roman,
Parthian, and
Kushan empires, even as the use of Greek was in decline.
Institutions In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived, particularly in its preservation of the past. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories. The preservation of many classical and archaic works of art and literature (including the works of the three great classical tragedians,
Aeschylus,
Sophocles, and
Euripides) are due to the efforts of the Hellenistic Greeks. The Mouseion and Library of Alexandria were the center of this conservationist activity. With the support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied, classified, and critiqued every book they could find. Most of the great literary figures of the Hellenistic period studied at Alexandria and conducted research there. They were scholar poets, writing not only poetry but treatises on
Homer and other archaic and classical Greek literature.
Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries and philosophical schools. Alexandria had the monumental
Mouseion (a research center) and
Library of Alexandria, with a estimated collection of 500,000 or more volumes. Cities and colonies were centers of administrative control and Macedonian power in a newly conquered region. Alexander also seems to have attempted to create a mixed Greco-Persian elite class as shown by the
Susa weddings and his adoption of some forms of Persian dress and court culture. He also brought Persian and other non-Greek peoples into his military and even the elite cavalry units of the
companion cavalry. Again, it is probably better to see these policies as a pragmatic response to the demands of ruling a large empire during his later years. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the influx of Greek colonists into the new realms continued to spread Greek culture into Asia. The founding of new cities and military colonies continued to be a major part of the Successors' struggle for control of any particular region, and these continued to be centers of cultural diffusion. The spread of Greek culture under the Successors seems mostly to have occurred with the spreading of Greeks themselves, rather than as an active policy. Throughout the Hellenistic world, these Greco-Macedonian colonists considered themselves by and large superior to the native "barbarians" and excluded most non-Greeks from the upper echelons of courtly and government life. Most of the native population was not Hellenized, had little access to Greek culture and often found themselves discriminated against by their Hellenic overlords.
Gymnasiums and their Greek education, for example, were for Greeks only. Greek cities and colonies may have exported Greek art and architecture as far as the
Indus, but these were mostly enclaves of Greek culture for the transplanted Greek
elite. The degree of influence that Greek culture had throughout the Hellenistic kingdoms was therefore highly localized and based mostly on a few great cities like Alexandria and Antioch. Some natives did learn Greek and adopt Greek ways, but this was mostly limited to a few local elites who were allowed to retain their posts by the Diadochi and also to a small number of mid-level administrators who acted as intermediaries between the Greek speaking upper class and their subjects. In the Seleucid Empire, for example, this group amounted to only 2.5 percent of the
official class.
Hellenistic art nevertheless had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. As far as the Indian subcontinent,
Hellenistic influence on Indian art was broad and far-reaching, and had effects for several centuries following the forays of Alexander the Great. Despite their initial reluctance, the Successors seem to have later deliberately naturalized themselves to their different regions, presumably in order to help maintain control of the population. In the Ptolemaic kingdom, we find some Egyptianized Greeks by the 2nd century onwards. In the
Indo-Greek kingdom we find kings who were converts to
Buddhism (e.g.,
Menander). The Greeks in the regions therefore gradually become 'localized', adopting local customs as appropriate. In this way, hybrid 'Hellenistic' cultures naturally emerged, at least among the upper echelons of society. The trends of Hellenization were therefore accompanied by Greeks adopting native ways over time, but this was widely varied by place and by social class. The farther away from the Mediterranean and the lower in social status, the more likely that a colonist was to adopt local ways, while the Greco-Macedonian elites and royal families usually remained thoroughly Greek and viewed most non-Greeks with disdain. It was not until
Cleopatra VII that a Ptolemaic ruler bothered to learn the
Egyptian language of their subjects.
Religion , a deity with attributes from Greek and Egyptian gods In the Hellenistic period, there was much continuity in
Greek religion: the
Greek gods continued to be worshiped, and the same rites were practiced as before. However the socio-political changes brought on by the conquest of the Persian empire and Greek emigration abroad meant that change also came to religious practices. This varied greatly by location. Athens, Sparta and most cities in the Greek mainland did not see much religious change or new gods (with the exception of the Egyptian
Isis in Athens), while the multi-ethnic Alexandria had a very varied group of gods and religious practices, including Egyptian, Jewish and Greek. Greek emigres brought their Greek religion everywhere they went, even as far as India and Afghanistan. Non-Greeks also had more freedom to travel and trade throughout the Mediterranean and in this period we can see Egyptian gods such as
Serapis, and the
Syrian gods
Atargatis and
Hadad, as well as a Jewish
synagogue, all coexisting on the island of
Delos alongside classical Greek deities. A common practice was to identify Greek gods with native gods that had similar characteristics and this created new fusions like Zeus-Ammon,
Aphrodite Hagne (a Hellenized
Atargatis) and
Isis-
Demeter. Greek emigres faced individual religious choices they had not faced on their home cities, where the gods they worshiped were dictated by tradition. Hellenistic monarchies were closely associated with the religious life of the kingdoms they ruled. This had already been a feature of Macedonian kingship, which had priestly duties. Hellenistic kings adopted patron deities as protectors of their house and sometimes claimed descent from them. The Seleucids for example took on
Apollo as patron, the Antigonids had
Herakles, and the Ptolemies claimed
Dionysus among others. The worship of dynastic ruler cults was also a feature of this period, most notably in Egypt, where the
Ptolemies adopted earlier Pharaonic practice, and established themselves as
god-kings. These cults were usually associated with a specific temple in honor of the ruler such as the
Ptolemaieia at Alexandria and had their own festivals and theatrical performances. The setting up of ruler cults was more based on the systematized honors offered to the kings (sacrifice,
proskynesis, statues, altars, hymns) which put them on par with the gods (
isotheism) than on actual belief of their divine nature. According to Peter Green, these cults did not produce genuine belief of the divinity of rulers among the Greeks and Macedonians. The worship of Alexander was also popular, as in the long lived cult at
Erythrae and of course, at Alexandria, where his tomb was located. The Hellenistic age also saw a rise in the disillusionment with traditional religion. The rise of philosophy and the sciences had removed the gods from many of their traditional domains such as their role in the movement of the heavenly bodies and natural disasters. The
Sophists proclaimed the centrality of humanity and
agnosticism; the belief in
Euhemerism (the view that the gods were simply ancient kings and heroes), became popular. The popular philosopher
Epicurus promoted a
view of disinterested gods living far away from the human realm in
metakosmia. The
apotheosis of rulers also brought the idea of divinity down to earth. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes.
Magic was practiced widely, and this, too, was a continuation from earlier times. Throughout the Hellenistic world, people would consult
oracles, and use
charms and figurines to deter misfortune or to cast spells. Also developed in this era was the complex system of
astrology, which sought to determine a person's character and future in the movements of the
Sun,
Moon, and
planets. Astrology was widely associated with the cult of
Tyche (luck, fortune), which grew in popularity during this period.
Literature . The Hellenistic period saw the rise of
New Comedy, the only few surviving representative texts being those of
Menander (born 342/341 BC). Only one play,
Dyskolos, survives in its entirety. The plots of this new Hellenistic
comedy of manners were more domestic and formulaic, stereotypical low born characters such as slaves became more important, the language was colloquial and major motifs included
escapism, marriage, romance and luck (
Tyche). Though no Hellenistic tragedy remains intact, they were still widely produced during the period, yet it seems that there was no major breakthrough in style, remaining within the classical model. The
Supplementum Hellenisticum, a modern collection of extant fragments, contains the fragments of 150 authors. ) and a woman reading a
diptych Hellenistic poets now sought patronage from kings, and wrote works in their honor. The scholars at the libraries in Alexandria and Pergamon focused on the collection, cataloging, and
literary criticism of classical Athenian works and ancient Greek myths. The poet-critic
Callimachus, a staunch elitist, wrote hymns equating Ptolemy II to Zeus and Apollo. He promoted short poetic forms such as the
epigram,
epyllion and the
iambic and attacked epic as base and common ("big book, big evil" was his doctrine). He also wrote a massive catalog of the holdings of the library of Alexandria, the famous
Pinakes. Callimachus was extremely influential in his time and also for the development of
Augustan poetry. Another poet,
Apollonius of Rhodes, attempted to revive the epic for the Hellenistic world with his
Argonautica. He had been a student of Callimachus and later became chief librarian (
prostates) of the library of Alexandria. Apollonius and Callimachus spent much of their careers feuding with each other.
Pastoral poetry also thrived during the Hellenistic era,
Theocritus was a major poet who popularized the genre. Around 240 BC Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave from southern Italy, translated Homer's
Odyssey into Latin. Greek literature would have a dominant effect on the development of the
Latin literature of the Romans. The poetry of
Virgil,
Horace and
Ovid were all based on Hellenistic styles.
Philosophy founded
Stoic philosophy. During the Hellenistic period, many different schools of thought developed, and these schools of Hellenistic philosophy had a significant influence on the Greek and Roman ruling elite. Athens, with its multiple philosophical schools, continued to remain the center of philosophical thought. However, Athens had now lost her political freedom, and Hellenistic philosophy is a reflection of this new difficult period. In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as
ataraxia (un-disturbedness),
autarky (self-sufficiency), and
apatheia (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or
eudaimonia out of the most difficult turns of fortune. This occupation with the inner life, with personal inner liberty and with the pursuit of eudaimonia is what all Hellenistic philosophical schools have in common. The
Epicureans and the
Cynics eschewed public offices and civic service, which amounted to a rejection of the
polis itself, the defining institution of the Greek world.
Epicurus promoted
atomism and an
asceticism based on freedom from pain as its ultimate goal. The
Cyrenaics and Epicureans embraced
hedonism, arguing that pleasure was the only true good. Cynics such as
Diogenes of Sinope rejected all material possessions and social conventions (
nomos) as unnatural and useless.
Stoicism, founded by
Zeno of Citium, taught that
virtue was sufficient for eudaimonia as it would allow one to live in accordance with Nature or
Logos. The philosophical schools of
Aristotle (the
Peripatetics of the
Lyceum) and
Plato (
Platonism at the
Academy) also remained influential. Against these
dogmatic schools of philosophy the
Pyrrhonist school embraced
philosophical skepticism, and, starting with
Arcesilaus, Plato's Academy also embraced skepticism in the form of
Academic Skepticism. The spread of
Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the
spread of Islam, ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of
Medieval philosophy (often forcefully, as under
Justinian I), which was dominated by the three
Abrahamic traditions:
Jewish philosophy,
Christian philosophy, and
early Islamic philosophy. In spite of this shift, Hellenistic philosophy continued to influence these three religious traditions and the
Renaissance thought which followed them.
Sciences and dated to (
P. Oxy. 29). The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5. Science in the Hellenistic age differed from that of the previous era in at least two ways: first, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in older civilizations; secondly, to some extent, it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander's successors. The cultural competition among the Hellenistic kingdoms produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean, of which the most important was
Alexandria in Egypt, which became a major center of scholarship in the 3rd century BC. In their scientific investigations, Hellenistic scholars frequently employed the principles developed earlier in
ancient Greece: the application of mathematics to natural phenomena and the undertaking of deliberate empirical research. In
mathematics, Hellenistic geometers built upon the work of mathematicians from the previous generation such as
Theodorus,
Archytas,
Theaetetus, and
Eudoxus. Euclid, whose
Elements became the most important textbook in Western
mathematics until the 19th century, presented proofs for the
Pythagorean theorem, for the
infinitude of primes, and for the five
Platonic solids.
Archimedes made use of a technique dependent on
proof by contradiction to solve problems with an arbitrary degree of accuracy. Known as the
method of exhaustion, Archimedes used it in several of his works, including to approximate the value of
π (
Measurement of the Circle) and to prove that the area enclosed by a
parabola and a straight line is 4/3 times the area of a
triangle with equal base and height (
Quadrature of the Parabola). The most characteristic product of Hellenistic mathematics was the theory of
conic sections, reaching its greatest achievement in the work of
Apollonius. It made no explicit use of either
algebra or
trigonometry, the latter appearing around the time of
Hipparchus. In the
exact sciences,
Eratosthenes measured the
Earth's circumference and calculated the
tilt of the Earth's axis with remarkable accuracy. He might have also determined the distance from the Earth to the Sun and invented the
leap day. Eratosthenes drew a
map of the world incorporating
parallels and
meridians, based on the available geographical knowledge of the era. Another important figure is the astronomer
Hipparchus, who used
Babylonian astronomical data and discovered the phenomena of Earth's
precession. Pliny reports that Hipparchus produced the first systematic
star catalog after he observed a new star, wishing to preserve astronomical record of the stars so that new ones could be discovered. A celestial globe based on Hipparchus' star catalog presumably sits atop the broad shoulders of a large 2nd-century Roman statue known as the
Farnese Atlas. Another astronomer,
Aristarchos of Samos, measured the distances of the Earth, Sun, and Moon, and developed a
heliocentric theory. In mechanics,
Ctesibius wrote the first treatises on the science of
compressed air and its uses in pumps, and allegedly designed a kind of
cannon as reported by
Hero of Alexandria. In the life sciences,
medicine made significant advances within the framework of the Hippocratic tradition.
Praxagoras theorized that blood traveled through the veins, while
Herophilos and
Erasistratus performed dissections and vivisections of humans and animals, providing accurate descriptions of the
nervous system, liver and other key organs. Influenced by
Philinus of Cos, a student of Herophilos, the
Empiric school of medicine focused on strict observation and rejected the unseen causes of the
Dogmatic school. In botany,
Theophrastus was known for his work in plant classification while
Crateuas wrote a compendium on botanic pharmacy. The library of Alexandria presumably included a zoo for research and Hellenistic zoologists include Archelaos, Leonidas of Byzantion,
Apollodoros of Alexandria and Bion of Soloi. The technological achievement of the Hellenistic age is masterly displayed in the
Antikythera mechanism, a 37-gear mechanical analog computer which calculated the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets, including lunar and solar eclipses. Devices of this sort are not found again until the 10th century, when a simpler eight-geared luni-solar calculator incorporated into an
astrolabe was described by the Persian scholar,
Al-Biruni. Similarly complex devices were also developed by other
Muslim engineers and
astronomers during the
Middle Ages. Recent interpretations tend to be more generous, leading a few people like mathematician
Lucio Russo to claim that the
scientific method was actually born in the 3rd century BC, to be largely forgotten during the Roman period and only revived in full during the
Renaissance.
Military science (bottom center),
Gastraphetes (on wall) Hellenistic warfare was a continuation of the military developments of
Iphicrates and
Philip II of Macedon, particularly his use of the
Macedonian phalanx, a dense formation of
pikemen, in conjunction with heavy
companion cavalry. Armies of the Hellenistic period differed from those of the classical period in being largely made up of professional soldiers and also in their greater specialization and technical proficiency in
siege warfare. Hellenistic armies were significantly larger than those of classical Greece relying increasingly on Greek
mercenaries (
misthophoroi; men-for-pay) and also on non-Greek soldiery such as Thracians, Galatians, Egyptians and Iranians. Some ethnic groups were known for their martial skill in a particular mode of combat and were highly sought after, including
Tarantine cavalry, Cretan archers, Rhodian slingers and Thracian
peltasts. This period also saw the adoption of new weapons and troop types such as
Thureophoroi and the
Thorakitai who used the oval
Thureos shield and fought with javelins and the
machaira sword. The use of heavily armored
cataphracts and also
horse archers was adopted by the Seleucids, Greco-Bactrians, Armenians and
Pontus. The use of
war elephants also became common. Seleucus received Indian war elephants from the
Mauryan Empire, and used them to good effect at the
battle of Ipsus. He kept a core of 500 of them at
Apameia. The Ptolemies used the smaller African elephant. Hellenistic military equipment was generally characterized by an increase in size.
Hellenistic-era warships grew from the
trireme to include more banks of oars and larger numbers of rowers and soldiers as in the Quadrireme and Quinquereme. The Ptolemaic
Tessarakonteres was the largest ship constructed in Antiquity. New siege engines were developed during this period. An unknown engineer developed the torsion-spring catapult () and Dionysios of Alexandria designed a repeating
ballista, the
Polybolos. Preserved examples of ball projectiles range from .
Demetrius Poliorcetes was notorious for the large
siege engines employed in his campaigns, especially during the 12-month siege of Rhodes when he had Epimachos of Athens build a massive 160 ton siege tower named
Helepolis, filled with artillery.
Art The term
Hellenistic is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean, rather than the
Classical Greece focused on the
Poleis of
Athens and
Sparta, but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience. Hardly any examples of Hellenistic paintings or sculptures survive, but we have many Roman copies. For
Hellenistic sculpture we have some originals, including
Laocoön and His Sons, the
Venus de Milo, and the
Winged Victory of Samothrace. Many surviving frescoes and mosaics from the Roman period are believed to be loose copies of Hellenistic paintings, but it is difficult to assess what the original artworks were like. Hellenistic art saw a turn from the idealistic, perfected, calm and composed figures of classical Greek art to a style dominated by
realism and the depiction of emotion (
pathos) and character (
ethos). The motif of deceptively realistic
naturalism in art (
aletheia) is reflected in stories such as that of the pre-Hellenistic painter
Zeuxis, who was said to have painted grapes that seemed so real that birds came and pecked at them. The
female nude also became more popular as epitomized by the
Aphrodite of Cnidos of
Praxiteles and art in general became more erotic (e.g.,
Leda and the Swan and
Scopa's Pothos). The dominant ideals of Hellenistic art were those of sensuality and passion. People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. Artists such as
Peiraikos chose mundane and lower class subjects for his paintings. According to Pliny, "He painted barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects, earning for himself the name of
rhyparographos [painter of dirt/low things]. In these subjects he could give consummate pleasure, selling them for more than other artists received for their large pictures" (
Natural History, Book XXXV.112). Even barbarians, such as the
Galatians, were depicted in heroic form, prefiguring the artistic theme of the
noble savage. The image of Alexander the Great was also an important artistic theme, and all of the diadochi had themselves depicted imitating Alexander's youthful look. Developments in painting included experiments in
chiaroscuro by
Zeuxis and the development of
landscape painting and
still life painting. Greek temples built during the Hellenistic period were generally larger than classical ones, such as the
temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the temple of
Artemis at
Sardis, and the temple of Apollo at Didyma (rebuilt by Seleucus in 300 BC). The royal palace (
basileion) also came into its own during the Hellenistic period, the first extant example being the massive 4th-century villa of Cassander at
Vergina. This period also saw the first written works of
art history in the histories of
Duris of Samos and
Xenocrates of Athens, a sculptor and a historian of sculpture and painting. There has been a trend in writing the history of this period to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following the
Golden Age of
Classical Athens.
Pliny the Elder, after having described the
sculpture of the classical period, says:
Cessavit deinde ars ("then art disappeared"). The 18th century terms
Baroque and
Rococo have sometimes been applied to the art of this complex and individual period. The renewal of the historiographical approach as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of
Vergina, allow a better appreciation of this period's artistic richness.
Sport in
Macedonia. Last quarter of the 4th century BC (Pella, Archaeological Museum). Throughout the Hellenistic period, several sports were practiced and promoted across the different cities and kingdoms of the time. Sport was culturally associated as a major compositional component of the "Hellenic self-image" and the participation in athleticism was seen as an important civic quality for representing one's homeland or city-state. During this period, this Hellenic perception on sport would go on to spread throughout the Hellenistic world. One contrast to the classical period is that the increased fluidity of citizenship and civic identity during the Hellenistic period meant that there arose a greater emphasis on honoring the philanthropic sponsors of athletic festivals rather than the athletes themselves, observed by the "scarcity of Hellenistic honorific decrees praising athletes" as highlighted by Antiopi Argyriou-Casmeridis. Hunting was both a favorite pastime of the Macedonian kings and nobles of that age and a favorite subject for paintings. In Egypt, the
Ptolemaic kings sponsored new athletic festivals, and subsidize 'Egyptian' or 'Alexandrian' athletes at major competitions. Egyptian kings also provided funds for athletic facilities to be built, which housed ephebic education and encouraged citizens to partake in gymnasium classes. Ptolemaic and other Hellenistic royals often competed at athletic competitions like
The Olympics or other Panathenaic games. Women during the Hellenistic period were often given opportunities to show off their athletic abilities in similar ways to men. In
Egypt, Ptolemaic women were well known in terms of court, and during equestrian competitions. Despite women being banned from watching sports and events like the male Olympics, in Hellenistic Empires, female sport (especially equestrian sport) flourished. Discoveries of poems in 2001 depicted eighteen different wins for equestrian sport. These wins took place at competitions like Olympia and
Athens, and all originated from the royal court. Several of these wins resulted from women and confirmed the desires and self-representation of Hellenistic rulers as they tried to influence the Greek World. Other forms of leisure activities included public presentations and demonstrations. These performances were often orchestrated by the royals for their own enjoyment. It is noted that these events were catered for both the female and male audiences. These events would often contain displays of exotic animals and other paraphernalia that aided to display their wealth and the territories that they controlled. While empires during the Hellenistic period ruled, they witnessed "expansion of 'crown' or 'Iso-' (equal to) major athletic festivals". This movement as well as the public displays for royalty were both trends what would continue into the
Roman Empire. == Legacy ==