Late Antiquity The
Komani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of
North Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the
Lezhë (
Praevalitana)-
Dardania and
Via Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its
type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley.
Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between the
classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and
Vlachs (
Eastern Romance-speaking people). In Winnifrith's narrative, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys.
Middle Ages served as the royal seat of the
Principality of Arbanon and later as the noble residence of the
Kastrioti family. The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in the
Southeast of Europe at the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west, but they also have historically inhabited a hardly accessible mountainous region, which helped them preserve their peculiar culture and language. The issue surrounding the
origin of the Albanian people has long been debated by historians and
linguists for centuries. They have
Paleo-Balkan origins, and for geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the
Illyrians, but besides the Illyrians which specific Peleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate. The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work of
Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080). Though it was in 1190 when they established their first independent entity, the
Principality of Arbër (Arbanon), with its seat based in
Krujë. Immediately after the decline of the
Progon dynasty in 1216, the principality came under
Gregorios Kamonas and next his son-in-law
Golem. Finally, the Principality was dissolved in ca. 1255 by the
Empire of Nicea followed by an unsuccessful
rebellion between 1257 and 1259 supported by the
Despotate of Epirus. In the meantime
Manfred, King of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by
Philippe Chinard, captured
Durrës,
Berat,
Vlorë,
Spinarizza, their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to
Butrint. In 1266 after
defeating Manfred's forces and killing him, the
Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with
Charles I, King of Sicily acquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania. Local noblemen such as
Andrea Vrana refused to surrender Manfred's former domains, and in 1271 negotiations were initiated. In 1272 the
Kingdom of Albania was created after a delegation of Albanian noblemen from Durrës signed a treaty declaring union with the Kingdom of Sicily under Charles. Charles soon imposed military rule, new taxes, took sons of Albanian noblemen hostage to ensure loyalty, and confiscated lands for
Angevin nobles. This led to discontent among Albanian noblemen, several of whom turned to Byzantine Emperor
Michael VIII. In late 1274, Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen capture Berat and Butrint. Charles' attempt to advance towards Constantinople failed at the
Siege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The
Sicilian Vespers rebellion further weakened the position of Charles, who died in 1285. By the end of the 13th century, most of Albania was under Byzantine Emperor
Andronikos II Palaiologos. In 1296 Serbian king
Stephen Milutin captured Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as
dowry. In 1302,
Philip I, Prince of Taranto, grandson of Charles, claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred him over the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of
Pope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, the Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by the locals who submitted themselves to Angevin rule. Prominent Albanian leaders during this time were the
Thopia family, ruling in an area between the Mat and Shkumbin rivers, and the
Muzaka family in the territory between the Shkumbin and Vlorë. In 1279, Gjon I Muzaka, who remained loyal to the Byzantines and resisted Angevin conquest of Albania, was captured by the forces of Charles but later released following pressure from Albanian nobles. The Muzaka family continued to remain loyal to the Byzantines and resisted the expansion of the
Serbian Kingdom. In 1335 the head of the family, Andrea II Muzaka, gained the title of
Despot and other Muzakas pursued careers in the Byzantine government in Constantinople. Andrea II soon endorsed an anti-Byzantine revolt in his domains between 1335–1341 and formed an alliance with
Robert, Prince of Taranto in 1336. In 1336, Serbian king
Stefan Dušan captured Durrës, including the territory under the control of the Muzaka family. Although Angevins managed to recapture Durazzo, Dušan continued his expansion, and in the period of 1337–45 he had captured
Kanina and
Valona in southern Albania. Around 1340 forces of Andrea II defeated the Serbian army at the
Pelister mountain. that Andrea II captured from
Prince Marko after the
Battle of Marica in 1371. A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, papal missionaries and a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country. Those who were not Catholic in central and northern Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions. Around 1230 the two main centers of Albanian settlements were around
Devoll river in what is now central Albania and the other around the region known as Arbanon. Albanian presence in Croatia can be traced back to the beginning of the
Late Middle Ages. In this period, there was a significant Albanian community in
Ragusa with a number of families of Albanian origin inclusively the
Sorgo family who came from the
Cape of Rodon in central Albania, across
Kotor in eastern Montenegro, to
Dalmatia. By the 13th century, Albanian merchants were trading directly with the peoples of the
Republic of Ragusa in Dalmatia which increased familiarity between Albanians and Ragusans. The upcoming invasion of Albania by the
Ottoman Empire and the death of
Skanderbeg caused many Christian Albanians to flee to Dalmatia and surrounding countries. In the 14th century a number of
Albanian principalities were created. These included
Principality of Kastrioti,
Principality of Dukagjini,
Princedom of Albania, and
Principality of Gjirokastër. At the beginning of the 15th century these principalities became stronger, especially because of the fall of the
Serbian Empire. Some of these principalities were united in 1444 under the anti-Ottoman military alliance called
League of Lezha. Albanians were recruited all over Europe as a light cavalry known as
stratioti. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during the 15th century. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian
hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern).
Ottoman Empire Prior to the
Ottoman conquest of Albania, the political situation of the Albanian people was characterised by a fragmented conglomeration of scattered
kingdoms and
principalities such as the
Principalities of Arbanon,
Kastrioti and
Thopia. Before and after the
fall of Constantinople, the
Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into the
Southeast Europe. As a consequence thousands of Albanians from
Albania,
Epirus and
Peloponnese escaped to
Calabria,
Naples,
Ragusa and
Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible
Mountains of Albania. Under the leadership of
Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, a former governor of the Ottoman
Sanjak of Dibra, a prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted with the formation of the
League of Lezhë in 1444 up until the
Siege of Shkodër ending in 1479, multiple times defeating the mightiest power of the time led by
Sultans
Murad II and
Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the
Arianitis,
Dukagjinis,
Zaharias and
Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories and proclaiming himself the Lord of Albania (
Dominus Albaniae in Latin). Skanderbeg consistently pursued the aim relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe and financial and military aid from the
Papacy and
Naples,
Venice and
Ragusa. The Albanians, then predominantly Christian, were initially considered as an
inferior class of people and as such were subjected to heavy
taxes such as the
Devshirme system that allowed the state to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from the
Balkans and elsewhere to compose the
Janissary. Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the
Ottoman military and bureaucracy. They were therefore to be found within the imperial services as vital military and administrative retainers from
Egypt to
Algeria and the rest of the
Maghreb. in 1815–1821 In the late 18th century,
Ali Pasha Tepelena created the autonomous region of the
Pashalik of Yanina within the
Ottoman Empire which was never recognised as such by the
High Porte. The territory he properly governed incorporated most of southern
Albania,
Epirus,
Thessaly and southwestern
Macedonia region. During his rule, the town of
Janina blossomed into a cultural, political and economic hub for both Albanians and Greeks. The ultimate goal of Ali Pasha Tepelena seems to have been the establishment of an independent rule in Albania and Epirus. Thus, he obtained control of
Arta and took control over the ports of
Butrint,
Preveza and
Vonitsa. He also gained control of the
pashaliks of
Elbasan,
Delvina,
Berat and
Vlorë. His relations with the High Porte were always tense though he developed and maintained relations with the
British,
French and
Russians and formed alliances with them at various times. In the 19th century, the Albanian
wālī Muhammad Ali established a
dynasty that ruled over
Egypt and
Sudan until the middle of the 20th century. After a brief
French invasion led by
Napoleon Bonaparte and the Ottomans and
Mameluks competing for power there, he managed collectively with his Albanian troops to become the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt. As he revolutionised the military and economic spheres of Egypt, his empire attracted Albanian people contributing to the emergence of the
Albanian diaspora in Egypt initially formed by Albanian soldiers and mercenaries.
Islam arrived in the lands of the Albanian people gradually and grew widespread between at least the 17th and 18th centuries. The new religion brought many transformations into Albanian society and henceforth offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the
Ottoman Empire. With the advent of increasing suppression on
Catholicism, the Ottomans initially focused their conversions on the Catholic Albanians of the north in the 17th century and followed suit in the 18th century on the Orthodox Albanians of the south. At this point, the urban centers of
central and
southern Albania had largely adopted the religion of the growing Muslim Albanian elite. Many mosques and
takyas were constructed throughout those urban centers and cities such as
Berat,
Gjirokastër,
Korçë and
Shkodër started to flourish. In the far
north, the spread of Islam was slower due to Catholic Albanian resistance and the inaccessible and rather remote mountainous terrain. The motives for
conversion to Islam are subject to differing interpretations according to scholars depending on the context though the lack of sources does not help when investigating such issues. As Muslims, the Albanians attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration including over three dozen
Grand Viziers of Albanian origin, among them
Zagan Pasha,
Bayezid Pasha and members of the
Köprülü family, and regional rulers such as
Muhammad Ali of Egypt and
Ali Pasha of Tepelena. The Ottoman sultans
Bayezid II and
Mehmed III were both Albanian on their
maternal side. Areas such as Albania, western North Macedonia, southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro in Ottoman sources were referred to as
Arnavudluk or Albania. The Albanian people (both Muslim and Christian) had a great influence in the politics and events of the late 18th century and early 19th century Ottoman Empire, and in particular they played a key role in the
Greek War of Independence, on both sides of the war. Pursuing their own interests, they acted after their own agenda, regardless of the
Ottoman Porte's demands.
Albanian Renaissance was one of the earliest figures of the early
Albanian Renaissance. The
Albanian Renaissance characterised a period wherein the Albanian people gathered both
spiritual and intellectual strength to establish their rights for an independent political and social life, culture and education. By the late 18th century and the early 19th century, its foundation arose within the
Albanian communities in
Italy and
Romania and was frequently linked to the influences of the
Romanticism and
Enlightenment principles. Albania was under the rule of the
Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of unity or national conscience by the Albanian people. A number of thoroughly intellectual Albanians, among them
Naum Veqilharxhi,
Girolamo de Rada,
Dora d'Istria,
Thimi Mitko,
Naim and
Sami Frashëri, made a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people by working to develop
Albanian literature that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future. The Albanians had poor or often no schools or other institutions in place to protect and preserve their
cultural heritage. The need for schools was preached initially by the increasing number of Albanians educated abroad. The Albanian communities in Italy and elsewhere were particularly active in promoting the Albanian cause, especially in education which finally resulted with the foundation of the
Mësonjëtorja in
Korçë, the first secular school in the
Albanian language. was a well known rilindas and is considered to be the pioneer of modern
Albanian literature. The
Turkish yoke had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the people in the
Balkans, and their march toward independence quickened. Due to the more substantial of Islamic influence, the Albanians internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian territories to the emerging neighbouring states,
Serbia,
Montenegro,
Bulgaria and
Greece, were among the last peoples in the Balkans to desire division from the Ottoman Empire. The national awakening as a coherent political movement emerged after the
Treaty of San Stefano, according to which Albanian-inhabited territories were to be ceded to the neighbouring states, and focused on preventing that partition. It was the impetus for the nation-building movement, which was based more on fear of partition than national identity. It subsequently followed a period wherein the Albanians lived within an extreme isolation from the rest of the world for the next four decades. By 1967, the established government had officially proclaimed Albania to be the first
atheistic state in the world as they beforehand confiscated
churches,
monasteries and mosques, and any religious expression instantly became grounds for imprisonment. Protests coinciding with the emerging
revolutions of 1989 began to break out in various cities throughout Albania including
Shkodër and
Tirana which eventually lead to the
fall of communism. Significant internal and external migration waves of Albanians to such countries as
Greece and Italy followed.
Bunkerisation is arguably the most visible and memorable legacy of communism in Albania. Nearly 175,000 reinforced concrete
bunkers were built on strategic locations across
Albania's territory including near borders, within towns, on the seashores or mountains. These bunkers were never used for their intended purpose or for sheltering the population from attacks or an invasion by a neighbor. However, they were abandoned after the breakup of communism and have been sometimes reused for a variety of purposes.
Independence of Kosovo The overwhelming majority of
Kosovo's population
is ethnically Albanian with nearly 1.7 million people. Their presence as well as in the adjacent regions of
Toplica and
Morava is recorded since the
Middle Ages. As the Serbs expelled many Albanians from the wider Toplica and Morava regions in Southern Serbia, which the 1878
Congress of Berlin had given to the
Principality of Serbia, many of them settled in Kosovo. in
Pristina was unveiled at the celebration of the
Independence of Kosovo. In the 20th century, Kosovo was subsequently a part of the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia and
socialist Yugoslavia. The former
colonized Kosovo by force, a process which included mass killings and repression of ethnic Albanians. During the socialist era, the political situation of the Kosovars improved, although police action against all "decentralizing" forces (which included the Kosovar Albanians) was still espoused by figures such as
Aleksandar Ranković. Rights to use the
Albanian language were guaranteed by the constitution and it was widely used in
Macedonia and
Montenegro prior to the
dissolution of Yugoslavia. However, the economical situation in Kosovo (similarly to other southern regions such as Macedonia) became more and more precarious in comparison to the richer republics such as
Slovenia and
Croatia. This was especially the case in the aftermath of
liberalization and the full embrace of
market socialism after 1965. The mounting economic disparities contributed greatly to the rise of nationalism and ethnic tensions, both in the richer and poorer republics. In 1998, tensions between the Albanian and
Serb population of Kosovo culminated in the
Kosovo War, which led to the external and internal displacement of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanians. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the
government of Serbia claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists.
NATO launched a
78-day air campaign in 1999, which eventually led to an end to the war. Kosovo
declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, after years of strained relations between the Serb and predominantly Albanian population of Kosovo. It has been officially recognised by
Australia,
Canada, the
United States and major
European Union countries, while Serbia refuse to recognise Kosovo's independence, claiming it as
Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija under
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244. == Distribution ==