. Differences in the scholarly opinions are indicated by color. The main Avestan text of geographical interest is the first chapter of the
Vendidad (, 'The Law repudiating the
Deavas'). It consists of a list of the sixteen good lands () and countries () created by
Ahura Mazda. Each country is introduced with a verse describing its Ohrmazdian characteristic, followed by one describing the corresponding counter-creation () by
Angra Mainyu. The only exceptions are the first and eleventh country on the list where two verses explain its Ahrimanic counter-creation: {{Blockquote| The first of the good lands and countries which I,
Ahura Mazda, created, was the
Airyanem Vaejah, by the good river Daitya. Thereupon came
Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the
serpent in the river and winter, a work of the
Deavas. There are ten winter months there, two summer months; and those are cold for the waters, cold for the earth, cold for the trees. Winter falls there, with the worst of all plagues. The second of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the Gava, inhabited by the Sogdians. Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created the locust, which brings death unto cattle and plants. ... The sixteenth of the good lands and countries which I, Ahura Mazda, created, was the land by the floods of the
Rangha, where people live who have no chiefs. Thereupon came Angra Mainyu, who is all death, and he counter-created winter, a work of the Daevas. Early
Pahlavi sources have traditionally located many of these countries in the western Iranian regions; a tendency that was followed by much of 20th century scholarship. This changed with the work of
Gherardo Gnoli who argued that all place names in the Vendidad are located in the eastern part of Greater Iran, i.e. centered around modern day
Afghanistan and
Tajikistan. Since then, a number of revisions of Gnoli's work have been proposed, often attempting to derive the position of the more uncertain place names from an assumed arrangement according to which countries appear in the list. The following list presents these place names and discusses the different localization attempts made by scholars throughout the years: •
Airyanem Vaejah, by the good river Daitya (): The identity of both
Airyanem Vaejah and the river Daitya are not universally agreed upon. Iranian sources have traditionally located Aryanem Vaejah in around
Azerbaijan, a hypothesis that was shared, e.g., by
James Darmesteter. In contrast, historians such as
Walter Bruno Henning,
Josef Markwart, and
Mary Boyce believe its location to be in
Chorasmia or northeast Iran around the
Aral Sea and the
Oxus River. Yet according to
Michael Witzel, Airyanem Vaejah should be located at the center of the sixteen lands, specifically in what are now the central Afghan highlands (around modern
Bamyan Province). One of arguments in favor of locating Airyanem Vaejah in central Afghanistan is that a mountainous region explains its severe climate (Vd. 1.2.3) better than does its supposed location in Chorasmia. According to
Gnoli, it was situated between the
Helmand River and the
Hindu Kush Mountains, while historians like
Skjaervo have declared the localization of Airyanem Vaejah to be unsolveable. •
Gava, inhabited by the Sogdians (): The toponym Gava appears twice in the Avesta. Each time it is connected with the Sogdians and it is consequently identified with the region of
Sogdia. While the place name Gava remains elusive, Vogelsang connects it with Gabae, a Sogdian stronghold in western Sogdia and speculates that during the time of the Avesta, the center of Sogdia may have been closer to
Bukhara instead of
Samarkand. •
Mouru the just (): This toponym is universally identified with
Margiana, a historical region located in the eastern portion of
Turkmenistan. •
Bahdi the beautiful with uplifted banners (): Likewise, Bahdi is universally identified with
Bactria, a historical region around the city of
Balkh located mostly in today's
Afghanistan. •
Nisai between Mouru and Bahdi (): The Vendidad states that Nisai is located between Margiana and Bactria, which would place it somewhere near to today's
Faryab Province. However, some historians have also proposed a more western location centered around
Nisa in modern day southern
Turkmenistan or
Neyshabur in north-eastern
Iran. •
Haroiva with vis harezanem (): The meaning of 'vis harezanem' is unclear, yet the name Haroiva continues in the modern city of
Herat as well as the name of
Aria, the satrapy that was centered around this city. The name Haroiva also appears as
Sarayu, a
Vedic river in
India. •
Vakereta, inhabited by the Duzhaka (): Early Pahlavi sources identify this country with the
Kabul region. Modern scholarship mostly identifies Vakereta with the nearby region of
Gandhara. Diverting from this widely shared localization, Witzel places it close to
Gorgan. •
Urva rich in pastures (): The exact location of Urva is unknown. Gnoli proposed
Ghazni, while
Darmesteter believed it to be
Urgench in modern day
Uzbekistan. •
Khnenta, inhabited by the Vehrkana (): This place name is not found in any historical sources, but the Vehrkana are often connected with the Hyrcanians and Khnenta is, therefore, identified with
Hyrcania. However, Gnoli connects the name with the Barkanioi, a tribe mentioned by
Ctesias and places Khnenta north of the
Hindukush. On the other hand, Grenet connects the name Vehrkana with the town
Urgun south of the Hindukush. •
Harakhvaiti the beautiful (): This name appears during the
Achaemenid Empire as Harauvatish and was known to the Greeks as
Arachosia, a historical region centered around the valley of the
Arghandab River in modern-day southern
Afghanistan. The name also appears as
Sarasvati, a
Vedic river in India. It has been noted that the name of Harakhvaiti found in the Avesta differs from a reconstructed correct Avestan form and therefore may reflect a local dialect. •
Haetumant possessing the
Khvarenah (): Haetumant is the region of
Helmand River, which derives its name from it and roughly corresponds to the
Achaemenian region of
Drangiana, which later became known as
Sistan under the
Sassanians. •
Ragha of the three tribes (): Classic Pahlavi commentary identified Ragha with
Median Ragā (modern day
Rey in
Tehran province) and therefore placed it in western Iran. Following Gnoli, however, modern localization attempts often place it in Afghanistan, whereas others still support its traditional localization in western Iran. •
Chakhra the strong, supporting the religious order (): The location of Chakhra is still uncertain, but
Darmesteter believes the location is Čarx between Ghaznī and Kabul, in the valley of
Lōgar, whereas Grenet identifies Chakhra with the
Chitral valley. •
Varena with four corners (): According to Pahlavi tradition, Varena is located in mountainous
Gilan, the birthplace of Zahhak, who was killed by
Thraetaona. This localization was accepted by a number of historians. According to Gnoli, however, Varena is identified with modern
Buner between the
Indus River and the
Swat District. Yet, according to Witzel, Varena lies south of
Kabul. •
Hapta Hendu (,
Vsn. Sapta Sindhava, 'seven rivers'): Beginning with Pahlavi tradition, Hapta Hendu has been interpreted as referring to
Punjab plus the
Kabul River and the
Indus River, a tradition that is shared by the vast majority of modern scholars. • The land by the floods of the
Rangha, where people live who have no chiefs (): Like the first country on the list, Airyanem Vaejah, the last country Rangha is also afflicted by the same evil plague; the Deava-created winter. This makes a location in the north or the mountains plausible. The name Rangha is widely interpreted as the Avestan counterpart of the
Rasā, a semi-mystical river known from
Vedic geography. Like Airyanem Vaejah, the place name Rangha and its associated river are, therefore, sometimes interpreted to be both a mythological and a geographical location. In summary, there is a broad consensus regarding about half of the lands on this list, while Vakereta, Urva, Khnenta, Ragha, Chakhra and Varena are disputed to varying degrees. Airyanem Vaejah and Rangha, however, remain the most debated items. This is because these two place names may not only be geographical locations, but can also be interpreted as part of
Iranian cosmology. This is due to the elusive description of both countries, the fact that they start and end the list, the fact that they are both characterized by the same Deava-created winter, and the fact that they are both connected with a mythical river. As regards Airyanem Vaejah, it has been interpreted as "the traditional homeland" or "the ancient homeland" of the
Iranians. These definitions perpetuate interpretations of the Airyanem Vaejah as , of the Indo-Iranians or the . ==Yasht references==