Cognitive processes encompass various types, each managing different information and performing distinct functions within the human mind. They are sometimes divided into basic processes, like
perception and
memory, and higher-order processes, like
thinking. This distinction rests on the idea that higher-order processes could not occur without basic processes.
Perception and attention Perception is the organization and interpretation of sensory information about the world. It is a complex mental activity that involves the interplay of diverse cognitive processes, many of which occur automatically and unconsciously. It starts with physical
stimuli, such as light or sound, which are detected by
receptors and transmitted to the brain as electrical signals. These signals are processed in various
brain regions to construct a coherent
experience of distinct objects and events while situating them in a
spatial-temporal framework. Certain cognitive processes are responsible for
detecting basic features in sensory data, such as edges, colors, and
pitches, while others process spatial location.
Object recognition is another function that compares this information with stored representations in search of known patterns, such as recognizing a familiar landmark or identifying a specific melody. Some cognitive faculties are specialized for tasks only relevant to particular perceptual contents, such as
face recognition and language processing. Cognitive processes responsible for perception rely on various
heuristics to simplify problems and reduce cognitive labor. For example, visual perception often assumes that the size, shape, and color of objects
remain constant to ensure a consistent view despite changes in perspective or lighting. Heuristics sometimes lead to inaccurate or
illusory perceptions. Different forms of perception are associated with distinct types of stimuli and receptors.
Visual perceptionthe detection and interpretation of lightis a primary source of knowledge about the external environment for humans. Other forms of perception include
hearing,
touch,
smell, and
taste. Data from these different modalities are integrated by higher-order cognitive processes to form a unified and coherent experience of the world. Although sensory data is a central factor of perceptual experience, it is not the only factor, and various other forms of information influence the underlying cognitive operations. For instance, memories from earlier experiences determine which objects are experienced as familiar. Other factors include the expectations, goals, background knowledge, and belief system of the individual. Attention is a central aspect of mental processes that focuses cognitive resources on certain stimuli or features. It involves the selection or prioritization of specific aspects while filtering out irrelevant information. For example, attention is responsible for the
cocktail party effect, in which the brain isolates a single conversation while relegating surrounding noise to the background. The selection process is crucial since the total amount of information is typically too vast for the brain to process all at once. It ensures that the most important features are prioritized. Attention is not limited to perception but is also present in other cognitive processes, such as remembering and thinking.
Memory and learning Memory is the ability to retain, store, and retrieve information. It includes the capacity to consciously recall past experiences and is central to many other cognitive activities that rely on stored data to process information and coordinate behavior. Memory processes have three stages: an input phase where new information is acquired, a storage phase preserving the information for future access, and an output phase retrieving the information and making it available to other cognitive operations. Different types of memory are distinguished by the function they perform and the type of information they operate on.
Working memory stores information temporarily, making it available to other cognitive processes while allowing manipulation of the stored information. During
mental arithmetic, for example, the working memory holds and updates intermediate results while calculations are performed. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with the term
short-term memory, which is defined by brief retention without the emphasis on dynamic manipulation.
Long-term memory, by contrast, retains information for long periods, in some cases indefinitely. During storage, the information is not actively considered. However, it remains available for retrieval, like when recalling a childhood memory. Passive exposure to information is usually not sufficient for the effective formation and retrieval of long-term memories. Relevant factors include the level and type of engagement with the content: for example, the attention, emotion, mood, and context in which the information is processed. Long-term memory is typically divided into
episodic,
semantic, and
procedural memory based on the type of information involved. Episodic memory deals with information about past personal experiences and events. New memories are stored as a person undergoes experiences and can be accessed later, either by accessing factual information about the events or by mentally reliving them. For example, remembering one's last holiday trip involves episodic memory. Semantic memory deals with organized knowledge about the world not linked to specific experiences, such as
general knowledge about facts and concepts. For instance, the information that water freezes at 0 °C is stored in semantic memory. Procedural memory handles
practical knowledge of how to do things. It encompasses learned skills that can be executed, like the ability to ride a bicycle or to type on a keyboard. As a form of know-how, procedural memory is distinct from the capacity to verbally describe the exact procedure involved in the execution, like explaining how to maintain balance on a bicycle. For this reason, procedural memory is categorized as non-declarative or
implicit memory, which operates automatically and cannot be consciously accessed. Episodic and semantic memory, by contrast, belong to declarative or
explicit memory, which encompasses information that can be consciously recalled and described. The different forms of memory play a central role in learning, which involves the acquisition of novel information, skills, or habits, as well as refining existing knowledge and skills. Learning occurs through experience and enables individuals to adapt to their environment. It happens either
intentionally, such as through studying or practicing, or unintentionally as an unconscious side effect of engaging in other tasks. A central aspect of effective learning is the formation of memory connections, which link different pieces of information and facilitate their retrieval.
Thinking Thinking is a mental activity in which
concepts, ideas, and mental representations are considered and manipulated. Many cognitive processes fall into this category, including
reasoning,
concept formation,
problem solving, and
decision-making. Logical reasoning deals with information in the form of
statements by inferring a conclusion from a set of
premises. It proceeds in a rigorous and norm-governed manner to ensure that the conclusion is rationally convincing and supported by the premises. Logical reasoning encompasses
deductive and non-deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning follows strict
rules of inference, providing the strongest support: the conclusion of a deductive inference cannot be false if all the premises are true. An example is the
syllogism from the premises "all men are mortal" and "
Socrates is a man" to the conclusion "Socrates is mortal". Non-deductive reasoning aims to make a conclusion rationally convincing but does not guarantee its truth. For instance,
inductive reasoning infers a general law from many individual observations, like concluding that all
ravens are black based on observations of numerous black ravens.
Abductive reasoning, another type of non-deductive reasoning, seeks the best explanation of a phenomenon. For example, a doctor uses abductive reasoning when they infer that a child has
chickenpox as an explanation of the child's
skin rash and
fever. Problem-solving is a goal-directed activity that aims to overcome obstacles and arrive at a pre-defined objective. This happens, for instance, when determining the best route for an upcoming trip. Problem-solving starts with comprehending the problem, which typically involves an understanding of the initial state, the goal state, and the obstacles or constraints that hinder progress. Some problems are well-structured and have precise solution paths. For ill-structured problems, by contrast, it is not possible to determine which exact steps will be successful.
Divergent thinking is an approach to problem-solving that generates many possible solutions. It is usually combined with
convergent thinking, which evaluates the different options and eliminates unfeasible ones. Thought often relies on heuristics or general rules to find and compare possible solutions. A common heuristic is to divide a problem into several simpler subproblems. Another heuristic is to adapt strategies that were successful for similar problems encountered earlier. Closely related to problem-solving, decision-making is the cognitive process of choosing between courses of
action. To determine the best alternative, it weighs the different options by assessing their advantages and disadvantagesfor example, by considering their positive and negative consequences. According to
expected utility theory, a decision is
rational if it selects the option with the highest expected benefit, which is determined by the
probability and the value of each consequence. To assess the probability of an outcome, people use various heuristics, such as the
representativeness heuristic (judging by similarity to prototypes), the
availability heuristic (privileging easily accessible information), and
anchoring (relying on reference points). Different forms of thinking rely on concepts, which are general ideas or mental representations to sort objects into classes, like the concepts
animal and
table. Concept formation is the process of acquiring a new concept by learning to identify its instances and grasping its relation to other concepts. This process helps individuals organize information and make sense of the world. Psychologists distinguish between logical and natural concepts. Logical concepts have precise definitions and rules of application, like the concept
triangle. Natural concepts, by contrast, are based on resemblance but lack exact definitions or clear-cut boundaries, like the concept
table. Language acquisition happens naturally in early childhood through exposure to a linguistic environment. It is a complex process since the system of spoken language is made up of several layers. At the fundamental level are
basic sounds or
sound units. They usually do not have linguistic meaning themselves but are combined into
words, which refer to diverse things and ideas. Words are combined into
sentences by following the rules of
grammar. This system makes it possible to form and comprehend an infinite number of sentences based on knowledge of a finite number of words and rules. The exact meaning of sentences usually depends also on the
context in which they are used. Although distinct languages can differ significantly in their general structure, there are some universal cognitive patterns that underlie all human languages. Language comprehension is the process of understanding
spoken,
written, and
signed language. It involves the coordination of various cognitive skills to recognize words, consult memory to access their meanings, analyze sentence structures, and use contextual information to interpret their implications. Additional difficulties come from lexical and structural
ambiguities, in which a word or a sentence can be associated with multiple meanings. To resolve ambiguities, individuals rely on background knowledge about the overall topic and the speaker to discern the intended meaning. As a result, language comprehension depends not only on
bottom-up processes, which start with sensory information, but also on top-down processes, which integrate general knowledge and expectations. For example, expectations cause longer processing times if a familiar word occurs in a context where the audience did not expect it. While language comprehension seeks to uncover the meaning of pre-existing linguistic messages, language production involves the inverse process of generating linguistic expressions to convey thoughts. Before a statement can be precisely formulated, speakers construct a general idea of what they wish to express, and a rough sentence pattern of how to communicate it. Speakers then cognitively search for words that match the concepts they wish to convey. This activity, known as
lexicalization, is divided into two stages: the identification of
an abstract idea of the intended meaning, followed by the retrieval of the phonological form needed to pronounce the word. As speakers string together words to generate a sentence, they consider the
grammatical category of each word, like the contrast between
nouns and
adjectives, to align with the intended overall sentence structure. Additionally, the context of the conversation and the assumed background knowledge of the audience influence the selection of words and sentence structures.
Others Cognitive processes can be
conscious or
unconscious. Conscious processes, such as attentively solving a math problem step by step or recalling a vivid memory, involve active awareness. Unconscious processes, such as the low-level processes underlying face recognition and language processing, operate automatically without the individual's awareness.
Phenomenal consciousness involves a qualitative experience of mental phenomena, whereas
access consciousness is an awareness of information that is available for use but not actively experienced at the moment. Various theories of the cognitive function of consciousness have been proposed. One asserts that consciousness integrates diverse forms of data and makes information widely available to different subsystems. Other theories argue that consciousness improves social interaction by fostering
self-awareness in social contexts or that consciousness allows for increased flexibility and control, particularly in novel situations. A related distinction is between
controlled and automatic processes. Controlled processes are actively guided by the individual's intentions, like when a person deliberately shifts attention from one object of perception to another. These processes are flexible and adaptable to new situations but require more cognitive resources. Automatic processes, by contrast, happen unconsciously, are effortless, and require fewer cognitive resources. By becoming familiar with a task, a process that was initially controlled can become automatic, freeing up resources for other activities. For example, as a novice driver becomes experienced, they can automatically handle the car and adapt to road and traffic conditions while gaining the ability to engage in a conversation at the same time. Consciousness is closely related to
metacognition, which encompasses any knowledge or cognitive process that deals with information about cognition. Some forms of metacognition only manage or store information about other aspects of cognition, like
knowing that one can recall a specific memory. Others play an active role in monitoring and regulating ongoing processes, like changing a problem-solving strategy upon realizing that the previous one was ineffective. Metacognitive skills tend to improve the performance of other cognitive skills, particularly when dealing with complex tasks.
Moral cognitions are a type of social cognition that make individuals aware of the moral significance of situations. They occur when people recognize and appreciate
altruistic behavior or disapprove of malicious and harmful actions.
Cognitive psychologists also study the relation between cognition and
emotion, for example, how emotions influence mental operations like attention and decision-making. Cognitive processes do not always function as they should, and can lead to inaccuracies, either because of natural errors associated with
cognitive biases or as a result of pathological impairments from cognitive disorders. Cognitive biases are systematic ways in which human thinking deviates from ideal norms of
rationality. They are common patterns that affect most people, leading to misinterpretations of reality and suboptimal decisions. Cognitive biases are often caused by heuristics or mental shortcuts, which the brain uses to increase speed and reduce cognitive load. For instance, people typically
rely on information that easily comes to mind when assessing a situation while disregarding more relevant information that is harder to retrieve. Cognitive disorders involve a more pronounced deviation from typical mental functioning. High-level cognitive abilities usually require the interaction of many low-level processes. Impairments affecting a specific subprocess often result in a partial malfunction of the high-level process while leaving its other functions intact. For example,
prosopagnosia is a perceptual disorder in which individuals struggle to recognize faces, although their other visual abilities remain unaffected. Similarly,
anterograde amnesia is an impaired ability to form and recall new memories but leaves long-term memory intact. Disorders can affect a wide range of mental functions, including thought and language. Some disorders involve a general cognitive decline that is not limited to one specific function. For instance,
Alzheimer's disease is associated with a widespread, gradual impairment of memory, reasoning, and language. == Theories ==