Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt of an Egyptian man with sword belt,
Altes Museum After the conquest of Egypt by
Alexander the Great in 332 B.C., the country came under the rule of Greek
Ptolemaic kings. While the majority of the population remained Egyptian, foreign settlers of both Greek and non-Greek origin emigrated to Egypt during that period. While 10% may stand as a very approximate figure for the total immigrant population in Ptolemaic Egypt, including both Greeks and non-Greeks, this figure has been challenged as excessive. The native Egyptian population, which remained Egyptian in language and culture, spoke the latest stage of the
Egyptian language, which came to be known later as
Coptic. The creation of
Coptic as a coherent writing system to express the Egyptian language undoubtedly served to cement the distinction between the native population in Egypt and the ruling Greeks. In numbers and in culture, Egypt remained essentially Egyptian, even as foreign communities were incorporated into the life of the country. Over time, the small numbers of foreigners were integrated into the Egyptian population so that, when finally Rome took control of Egypt in 30 BC, the vast majority of Greeks in Egypt were essentially categorized by the Roman conquerors as Egyptians. The
Faiyum mummy portraits reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and religion, with that of
Hellenistic art, and were attached to sarcophagi of firmly Egyptian character. The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be "much more closely akin" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations.
Foundation of the Christian Church in Egypt According to ancient tradition,
Christianity was introduced to present day
Egypt by
St. Mark (Also known as St. Markos) in
Alexandria, shortly after the ascension of
Christ and during the reign of the
Roman emperor
Claudius around 42 AD. The legacy that St. Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. Within half a century of St. Mark's arrival Christianity had spread throughout Egypt. This is clear from a fragment of the
Gospel of John, written in
Coptic and found in
Upper Egypt that can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and the
New Testament writings found in
Oxyrhynchus, in
Middle Egypt, which date around 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the Coptic language (then known as
Egyptian). By the beginning of the 3rd century AD,
Christians constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the
Church of Alexandria was recognized as one of
Christendom's four apostolic sees, second in honor only to the
Church in Rome. The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in
Africa.
Contributions to Christianity The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to the Christian tradition. The
Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest institution of its kind in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar
Pantanaeus, the school became an important focus of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as
Athenagoras,
Clement,
Didymus, and
Origen (185–251, the father of
theology, who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative
Biblical studies). However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects: science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before
Braille, blind scholars used wood-carving techniques there to read and write. As major
early adopters of Christianity, Copts have the reputation of
missionaries spreading the Christian faith as far afield as Switzerland, Abyssinia and India, influencing Mesopotamia, Persia, Rome, and Ireland. Another major contribution the Egyptian Copts made to
Christianity was the creation and organization of
monasticism. Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from Egyptian origins. Prominent figures of the early monastic movement in Egypt included
Anthony the Great (251–356),
Paul of Thebes ( – ),
Macarius the Great ( – 391),
Shenouda the Archimandrite (died 465) and
Pachomius the Cenobite (died 348). By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. Pilgrims from all over the world visited the Egyptian
Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives.
St Basil the Great Archbishop of
Caesarea Mazaca, and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in
Asia Minor, visited Egypt around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the
Eastern Orthodox Churches.
Saint Jerome, who translated the
Bible into
Latin, came to
Egypt while en route to
Jerusalem around 400 AD, leaving details of his experiences in his letters.
St. Benedict founded the
Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of
Saint Pachomius, although in a stricter form.
Ecumenical councils The major contributions that the
See of Alexandria has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three
ecumenical councils in the history of
Christianity were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The
Council of Nicaea (325 AD) was presided over by
Pope Alexander I of Alexandria, along with
Saint Hosius of Córdoba. In addition, the most prominent figure of the council was the future Patriarch of Alexandria
Athanasius, who played the major role in the formulation of the
Nicene Creed, recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the
Patriarch of Alexandria with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of
Easter to the rest of the Christian churches. The
Council of Constantinople (381 AD) was presided over by
Pope Timothy I of Alexandria, while the
Council of Ephesus (431 AD) was presided over by
Pope Cyril of Alexandria.
Council of Chalcedon In the fourth and fifth centuries AD, the foundations were laid for the divergence in doctrine between the native Christian Church of the Egyptians, and that of the empire. The official schism occurred at the
Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD. The council, which condemned, deposed, exiled and replaced the native Egyptian Patriarch of Alexandria
Dioscorus I, was rejected by the Egyptian delegation to the council, and by extension by the entirety of the native Egyptian population. As a result of the Council of Chalcedon, the
Church of Alexandria, which had jurisdiction over the entire country of Egypt, as well as all of continent of
Africa, was divided into a church that accepted the decrees of the council, and one that rejected them. The church that accepted the council, became known as the Chalcedonian church, and survives today as the
Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria. On the other hand, the church that rejected the council of Chalcedon, to whom the vast majority of the native Copts adhered, became the predecessor of the
Coptic Orthodox Church. The latter has been erroneously referred to as
Monophysite, although it itself rejects that term and self-proclaims to be
Miaphysite. The non-Chalcedonian Miaphysite doctrine became adopted as a badge of nationalism for the native Egyptians. That process became the foundation for the evolution of a distinctive Egyptian character for the
Coptic Orthodox Church, with its distancing from the empire's official
Chalcedonian Christology and its distinctive Greek character. This position coincided with the rise in the public visibility of the
Coptic language in several areas of the Egyptians' daily life.
Arab conquest of Egypt in
Coptic Cairo In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by Arab Muslim forces following the defeat of the Byzantine army. According to historian Roger S. Bagnall, the Copts who had developed a distinct Egyptian and non-Chalcedonian identity were subjected to a new system of governance that prioritized fiscal exploitation and systematic resource extraction, particularly through taxation. Alfred J. Butler records that parts of Alexandria were damaged during the Arab entry into the city, including the destruction of some of its walls and the burning of several churches. During the early years of the Rashidun Caliphate, Egypt's population particularly the native Copts was subjected to the imposition of new forms of taxation, forced labor requisitions for state infrastructure, and the appropriation of agricultural and technical resources. The fertile Nile Valley and the country's skilled labor force, particularly in shipbuilding and irrigation, were of strategic importance to the new administration. By the early eighth century, Coptic Christians were increasingly compelled to participate in state-sponsored labor. According to Alfred J. Butler, entire Egyptian villages were required to supply annual quotas of workers for construction projects including palaces and mosques in Fustat, Damascus, and Jerusalem. Additionally, they were conscripted into naval expeditions considered especially harsh, as those sent rarely returned to their villages due to the dangerous conditions. Roger S. Bagnall emphasizes that fiscal exploitation and labor requisition were central elements of the early Islamic administrative system in Egypt. These policies imposed disproportionate burdens on rural communities, particularly the Copts, who bore the brunt of extractive practices aimed at funding the caliphate's military and infrastructural expansion. Faced with the cumulative pressures of taxation, legal inequality, and the threat of forced conscription or persecution, many Copts gradually converted to Islam. These converts were classified as
Mawali (non-Arab Muslims) who, while integrated into the Muslim community, initially occupied a lower social and legal status than Arab Muslims. The burden of taxation left many Copts in rural areas unable to meet their obligations. Oppressive taxation resulted in local resistance and many revolts by the Copts against the Arab occupiers, the most famous of which were the
Bashmurian revolts between 720 A.D. and 832 A.D. Another reaction to the heavy taxation was for poor Christian Copts to either borrow money from richer members of their communities, or to altogether flee their lands and escape to other parts of Egypt.
Middle Ages , between 1898 and 1914. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian for approximately 800 years. Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of successive persecutions and the destruction of the Christian churches in Egypt. the
Abbasid Caliphate, the
Fatimid Caliphate, the
Mamluk Sultanate, and the
Ottoman Empire. The
persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches,
forced conversions to
Islam, and heavy
Jizya taxation for those who refused to convert. Coptic converts to
Islam may have been motivated by the prospect of financial relief, as they would no longer be subject to the Jizya tax, which was levied only on non-Muslims according to
Islamic Sharia law. The
History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria recounts the history of fiscal oppression imposed by the
caliphate against Copts as driving conversions from Christianity to Islam. Nevertheless, Egypt remained a majority Christian country well into the
Middle Ages. Many cities in
Upper Egypt had no Muslim communities at all during that time.
Early Modern Period at the
Pyramids in 1798, by
Antoine-Jean Gros , circa 1850 The treatment of Christian Copts by Muslim rulers remained challenging throughout the
Middle Ages and continued into the
Early modern period. When
Napoleon conquered Egypt in 1798 as part of the
Napoleonic wars, a military unit known as the
Coptic Legion was created out of necessity for self-defense by the Coptic community for protection against the
Mamluks,
Ottomans and Egyptian Muslims. The Coptic Legion was headed by a Coptic general,
General Yaqub, who recruited young Copts from
Cairo and
Upper Egypt for the Legion. These were trained by instructors from the French army. Together with the Greek Legion, the Coptic Legion formed the ''
Bataillon des Chasseurs d'Orient''. He argued for the country's independence from an
Egyptian nationalist point of view, highlighting the past glory of Egypt, lamenting its current state unworthy of a people who built a great civilization, and stressing the debt that humanity owes to Egypt's ancient culture. Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes, had lower access to political power, and were exempt from military service. The position of the Copts improved dramatically under the rule of
Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Copts to enroll in the army.
Pope Cyril IV, who reigned from 1854–1861, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive
Isma'il Pasha, in power 1863–1879, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs. When Zaghlul was
exiled by the British to
Malta in 1919, a number of prominent Christian Coptic figures who joined him in resisting the British occupation of Egypt were also exiled with him, including
Wissa Wassef and
George Khayat, both key members of the Egyptian nationalist movement. When Zaghlul returned from his first exile, he was joined by the Copts Wissa Wassef,
Sinout Hanna,
Wassef Ghali,
Morcos Hanna and
Makram Ebeid in forming a strong opposition against British colonialism in Egypt. Later in 1921, when Zaghlul was exiled to the
Seychelles, the prominent Copt Makram Ebeid was exiled with him. In fact, the preacher of the 1919 Revolution was a Coptic priest,
Father Morcos Sergius, who had been previously exiled by the British in 1915. In April 1922, the British ordered the execution of seven Egyptian nationalists, four of whom were Copts: Wissa Wassef, Wassef Ghali, George Khayat, and Morcos Hanna. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and non-Arab identity. ==Demographics==