of the crescent Moon and, in this case,
Venus; respectively the second and third
brightest natural objects in Earth's sky
Origins and predecessors King,
Ibbi-Sin seated with a star or
Dingir and crescent adjacent to him of
Meli-Shipak II (12th century BC) (r. 556–539 BC) found at
Harran (
Şanlıurfa Museum) Crescents appearing together with a star or stars are a common feature of Sumerian iconography, the crescent usually being associated with the moon god
Sin (Nanna) and the star with
Ishtar (
Inanna, i.e.
Venus), often placed alongside the sun disk of
Shamash. In Late Bronze Age Canaan, star and crescent moon motifs are also found on
Moabite name seals. The
Egyptian hieroglyphs representing "moon" (N11
N11) and "star" (N14
N14) appear in ligature, forming a star-and-crescent shape N11:N14, as a determiner for the word for "month", ''''. The depiction of the "star and crescent" or "star inside crescent" as it would later develop in
Bosporan Kingdom is difficult to trace to Mesopotamian art. Exceptionally, a combination of the crescent of Sin with the five-pointed
star of Ishtar, with the star placed
inside the crescent as in the later Hellenistic-era symbol, placed among numerous other symbols, is found in a
boundary stone of
Nebuchadnezzar I (12th century BC; found in
Nippur by
John Henry Haynes in 1896). An example of such an arrangement is also found in the (highly speculative) reconstruction of a fragmentary
stele of
Ur-Nammu (
Third Dynasty of Ur) discovered in the 1920s. A very early depiction of the symbol (crescent moon, stars and sun disc) is found on the
Nebra sky disc, dating from (Nebra, Germany). A
gold signet ring from Mycenae dating from the 15th century BC also shows the symbol. The star and crescent (or 'crescent and pellet') symbol appears 19 times on the
Berlin Gold Hat, dating from c. 1000 BC.
Classical antiquity Greeks and Romans Many ancient Greek (classical and hellenistic) and Roman amulets which depict stars and crescent have been found.
Mithradates VI Eupator of
Pontus (r. 120–63 BC) used an eight rayed star with a crescent moon as his emblem. McGing (1986) notes the association of the star and crescent with Mithradates VI, discussing its appearance on his coins, and its survival in the coins of the Bosporan Kingdom where "[t]he star and crescent appear on Pontic royal coins from the time of Mithradates III and seem to have had oriental significance as a dynastic badge of the Mithridatic family, or the arms of the country of Pontus." Several possible interpretations of the emblem have been proposed. In most of these, the "star" is taken to represent the Sun. The combination of the two symbols has been taken as representing Sun and Moon (and by extension Day and Night), the Zoroastrian
Mah and
Mithra, or deities arising from Greek-Anatolian-Iranian syncretism, the crescent representing
Mēn Pharnakou (, the local moon god) and the "star" (Sun) representing
Ahuramazda (in
interpretatio graeca called
Zeus Stratios) By the late
Hellenistic or early
Roman period, the star and crescent motif had been associated to some degree with
Byzantium. If any goddess had a connection with the walls in the city, it was
Hecate, who had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like
Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Hecate was considered the patron goddess of Byzantium because she was said to have saved the city from an attack by
Philip of Macedon in 340 BC by the appearance of a bright light in the sky. To commemorate the event the Byzantines erected a statue of the goddess known as the
Lampadephoros ("torch-bearer" or "torch-bringer"). Some Byzantine coins of the 1st century BC and later show the head of
Artemis with bow and quiver, and feature a crescent with what appears to be a six-rayed star on the reverse. File:MACEDON, Uranopolis. Eight-pointed star and crescent - Aphrodite Urania. Circa 300 BC.jpg|Star and crescent on a coin of
Uranopolis,
Macedon, ca. 300 BC (see also
Argead star). File:AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg|A star and crescent symbol with the star shown in a sixteen-rayed "sunburst" design (3rd century BC) on the
Ai-Khanoum plaque. File:CoinOfMithVI.jpg|Coin of Mithradates VI Eupator. The obverse side has the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΙΘΡΑΔΑΤΟΥ ΕΥΠΑΤΟΡΟΣ with a stag feeding, with the star and crescent and monogram of
Pergamum placed near the stag's head, all in an ivy-wreath. File:001-Byzantium-2.jpg|Roman-era coin with Greek inscription (1st century AD) with a bust of
Artemis on the obverse and an eight-rayed star within a crescent on the reverse side. The moon-goddess
Selene is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by two stars (the stars represent
Phosphorus, the morning star, and
Hesperus, the evening star); sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used. Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders. File:Altar Selene Louvre Ma508.jpg|The Moon-goddess Selene or Luna accompanied by the Dioscuri, or Phosphoros (the Morning Star) and Hesperos (the Evening Star). Marble altar, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD. From Italy. File:Altar of Selene MKL Bd. 14 1890 (128644418).jpg|The goddess Selene, illustration from
Meyers Lexikon, 1890 In the 2nd century, the star-within-crescent is found on the obverse side of Roman coins minted during the rule of
Hadrian,
Geta,
Caracalla and
Septimius Severus, in some cases as part of an arrangement of a crescent and seven stars, one or several of which were placed inside the crescent. File:Hadian denarius coin star crescent.jpg|Coin of
Roman Emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138). The reverse shows an eight-rayed star within a crescent. File:Roman Crescent Star.jpg|Roman period limestone pediment from
Perge,
Turkey (
Antalya Museum) showing
Diana-
Artemis with a crescent and a radiant crown. Because of Hecate, the crescent was an official symbol of Byzantium at the time of
its conquering in 324 by
Constantine, who is said to have added a star to symbolize the
Virgin Mary. Thus, for many centuries thereafter, via
Constantinople, the star and crescent was a Christian symbol until the later repurposing by Muslims.
Iran (Persia) The star and crescent symbol appears on some coins of the
Parthian vassal kingdom of
Elymais in the late 1st century AD. The same symbol is present in coins that are possibly associated with
Orodes I of Parthia (1st century BC). In the 2nd century AD, some Parthian coins show a simplified "pellet within crescent" symbol. File:OrodesIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|A star and crescent appearing (separately) on the obverse side of a coin of
Orodes II of Parthia (r. 57–37 BC). File:Vardanesi.jpg|Coin of
Vardanes I of Parthia (r. c. AD 40–45) File:Coin of the Sasanian king Kavad II (cropped), minted at Susa in 628.jpg|Coin of the Sasanian king
Kavad II, minted at Susa in 628 File:KhosrauIIGoldCoinCroppedHistoryofIran.jpg|Gold coin of
Khosrow II (r. 570–628). File:XusravIIICoinHistoryofIran.jpg|Coin of
Khosrow III File:Drachma of Hormidz IV - cropped.jpg|Coin of
Hormizd IV File:Ispahbod Xurshid's coin-1.jpg|Silver dirham issued by Ispahbudh
Khurshid of Tabaristan File:Main-qimg-3edfe670ef8411d0d22df020be518e44.jpg|Arab-Sassanian coin was issued, which was added with arabic writing by the
Umayyads File:Coin of Ardashir III, Arrajan mint (2).jpg|Sassanian coin issued by
Ardashir III during his second reign (r. 488–531). Kavadh was the first Sassanid ruler to introduce star-and-crescent motifs as decorations on the margin of the obverse side of his coins. Note the continued use of the star and the crescent appearing on either side of the king's head. The star and crescent motif appears on the margin of
Sassanid coins in the 5th century. This arrangement is likely inherited from its Ancient Near Eastern predecessors; the star and crescent symbols are not frequently found in Achaemenid iconography, but they are present in some cylinder seals of the Achaemenid era. Ayatollahi (2003) attempts to connect the modern adoption as an "Islamic symbol" to Sassanid coins remaining in circulation after the Islamic conquest which is an analysis that stands in stark contrast to established consensus that there is no evidence for any connection of the symbol with Islam or the Ottomans prior to its adoption in
Ottoman flags in the late 18th century.
Western Turkic Khaganate Coins from the
Western Turkic Khaganate had a crescent moon and a star, which held an important place in the worldview of ancient Turks and other peoples of Central Asia.
Medieval and early modern Christian and classical heraldric usage The
crescent on its own is used in western heraldry from at least the 13th century, while the star and crescent (or "Sun and Moon") emblem is in use in medieval seals at least from the late 12th century. The crescent in pellet symbol is used in
Crusader coins of the 12th century, in some cases duplicated in the four corners of a cross, as a variant of the cross-and-crosslets ("
Jerusalem cross"). Many Crusader seals and coins show the crescent and the star (or blazing Sun) on either side of the ruler's head (as in the Sassanid tradition), e.g.
Bohemond III of Antioch,
Richard I of England,
Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse. At the same time, the star in crescent is found on the obverse of Crusader coins, e.g. in coins of the
County of Tripoli minted under
Raymond II or
III c. 1140s–1160s show an "eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent". The star and crescent combination appears in
attributed arms from the early 14th century, possibly in a coat of arms of c. 1330, possibly attributed to
John Chrysostom, and in the
Wernigeroder Wappenbuch (late 15th century) attributed to one of the
three Magi, named "Balthasar of
Tarsus". Crescents (without the star) increase in popularity in early modern heraldry in Europe.
Siebmachers Wappenbuch (1605) records 48 coats of arms of German families which include one or several crescents. A star and crescent symbolizing
Croatia was commonly found on 13th-century
banovac coins in the
Kingdom of Slavonia, with a
two-barred cross symbolizing the
Kingdom of Hungary.
St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna used to have at the top of its highest tower a golden crescent with a star; it came to be seen as a symbol of Islam and the Ottoman enemy, which is why it was replaced with a cross in 1686. In the late 16th century, the
Korenić-Neorić Armorial shows a white star and crescent on a red field as the coat of arms of "
Illyria". The star and crescent combination remains rare prior to its adoption by the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 18th century. File:Seal of Richard I of England.webp|Great Seal of
Richard I of England (1198) File:Raimond6Toulouse.jpg|Equestrian seal of
Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse with a star and a crescent (13th century) File:Battle of Mohi 1241.PNG|The crescent flag ascribed to the
Hungarians against the Mongol
Golden Horde in the
Battle of Mohi, 1241. File:BattleOfHoms1299.JPG|
Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar (Battle of Homs) of 1299 (14th-century
miniature) File:Coat of arms of Cumania.svg|Historical coat of arms of
Kunság, where
Cumans in Hungary settled, 1279. File:Frater Robert seal templar.png|Templar seal of the 13th century, probably of the preceptor of the commanderies at Coudrie and Biais (
Brittany). File:Leliwa seal XIVw.jpg|Polish coats of arms, called
Leliwa (1334 seal) File:Wernigeroder Wappenbuch 021.jpg|Coats of arms of the
Three Magi, with "Baltasar of Tarsus" being attributed a star and crescent
increscent in a blue field,
Wernigerode Armorial (c. 1490) File:Wappenbild freigrafen 1448.jpg|Coat of arms of John
Freigraf of "Lesser Egypt" (i.e.
Romani/gypsy), 18th-century drawing of a 1498 coat of arms in
Pforzheim church. File:Krupac – Stećci (03).jpg|Depictions of stars with crescents are a common motif on the
stećak 12th to 16th century tombstones of
medieval Bosnia File:Coat of arms of the legitimate Kingdom of Bosnia.png|1668 representation by
Joan Blaeu of Coat of arms of the
Kingdom of Bosnia from 1595
Korenić-Neorić Armorial File:Coa Croatia Country Illyria History.svg|The coat of arms of "Illyria" from the
Korenić-Neorić Armorial (1590s) File:Banner of Cumania at Ferdinand II's coronation (1618).svg|Banner of
Cumania, used at the coronation of Ferdinand II of Hungary in 1618 and assigned to Gáspár (Caspar) Illésházy. File:Jelacic-Gulden 1848 reverse.jpg|Star and crescent on the obverse of the Jelacic-Gulden of the
Kingdom of Croatia (1848) File:COA-family-sv-Slatte.png|Coat of arms of the
noble family Slatte (1625–1699) in Sweden. File:COA family sv fi Finckenberg.png|Coat of arms of the
noble family Finckenberg (1627–1809) in Sweden. File:COA-family-sv-Boose.png|Coat of arms of the
noble family Boose (1642–1727) in Sweden. File:Flag of the Zaporizhian Sich.svg|Banner of the
Zaporizhian Sich (
Cossacks of Ukraine) before 1775. File:Coa Transylvania Country History v3.svg|
Coat of arms of Transylvania Muslim usage While the
crescent on its own is depicted as an emblem used on Islamic war flags from the medieval period, at least from the 13th century although it does not seem to have been in frequent use until the 14th or 15th century, A decree ('''') from 1793 states that the ships in the
Ottoman navy fly that flag, and various other documents from earlier and later years mention its use. With the
Tanzimat reforms in the 19th century, flags were redesigned in the style of the European armies of the day. The flag of the Ottoman Navy was made red, as red was to be the flag of secular institutions and green of religious ones. As the reforms abolished all the various flags (standards) of the Ottoman
pashaliks,
beyliks and
emirates, a single new Ottoman national flag was designed to replace them. The result was the red flag with the white crescent moon and star, which is the precursor to the modern
flag of Turkey. A plain red flag was introduced as the
civil ensign for all Ottoman subjects. The white crescent with an eight-pointed star on a red field is depicted as the flag of a "Turkish Man of War" in Colton's
Delineation of Flags of All Nations (1862). Steenbergen's ''
of the same year shows a six-pointed star. A plate in Webster's Unabridged'' of 1882 shows the flag with an eight-pointed star labelled "Turkey, Man of war". The five-pointed star seems to have been present alongside these variants from at least 1857. In addition to Ottoman imperial insignia, symbols appear on the flag of
Bosnia Eyalet (1580–1867) and
Bosnia Vilayet (1867–1908), as well as the
flag of 1831 Bosnian revolt, while the symbols appeared on some representations of
medieval Bosnian coat of arms too. In the late 19th century, "Star and Crescent" came to be used as a metaphor for Ottoman rule in British literature. The increasingly ubiquitous fashion of using the star and crescent symbol in the ornamentation of Ottoman mosques and minarets led to a gradual association of the symbol with Islam in general in western
Orientalism. The "Red Crescent" emblem was used by volunteers of the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) as early as 1877 during the
Russo-Turkish War; it was officially adopted in 1929. After the foundation of the
Republic of Turkey in 1923, the new Turkish state maintained the last flag of the
Ottoman Empire. Proportional standardisations were introduced in the Turkish Flag Law () of May 29, 1936. Besides the most prominent example of
Turkey (see
Flag of Turkey), a number of other Ottoman successor states adopted the design during the 20th century, including the
Emirate of Cyrenaica and the
Kingdom of Libya,
Algeria,
Tunisia, and the proposed
Arab Islamic Republic. ==Contemporary use==