Early history When the first universities formed in
Paris,
Bologna, and
Salerno around the 12th century, Europe was divided into a large number of small states, which reflected itself in the composition of the student body. To ensure an equal influence on the university's decisions, the students and teachers began to form
nationes, with one
nation for each native state of its members. This basic tradition was continued for a long time and still survives in
Sweden and
Finland to the present day. When the first universities of the
Holy Roman Empire were founded in
Prague (1348),
Vienna, and
Heidelberg in the 14th century, they established a similar system, the
Burse (From Latin "bursa" meaning "coin purse", from which
Bursche stems, for the Burse's collective funds). Students were forced to live in a dorm assigned by their native state and soon started taking up formal signs, often colorful clothing, to display their membership in a
Burse. This continues in the colored sashes worn by modern
Studentenverbindungen. When the first duels were fought is not known exactly, because students were allowed to carry
épées or
sabers to be able to protect themselves and to deal with confrontations between rival groups (
Raufduell). In the 17th century, the respective sovereigns gained increasing control over "their"
Burse, and the first fraternities were formally formed, calling themselves
Landsmannschaften, giving themselves Latin names according to their country of origin (
Borussia for
Prussia,
Guestphalia for
Westphalia, etc.) and introducing
Fuchs and
Bursche as status designations. Lifelong membership, though, was not known. During this period, the regulated duel was developed, accompanied by the idea to defend one's honor with a weapon and a strict code to guide the confrontation. This potentially lethal tradition continued until 1933 in Germany, with being so strict at some points, that, e.g., a Prussian officer could be expelled if he was not willing to demand or
give satisfaction. As the
Landsmannschaften faded during the early 1700s, secret organizations known as
Studentenorden (student orders) took their place and introduced elaborate rituals, formal oaths of membership, a strict
constitutio to regulate internal behavior, and cryptic symbols to identify members. All of these traditions are still known and actively practised in today's fraternities. The
Studentenorden, though, was heavily monitored by the then-
absolutist government, as many of their traditions were derived from
freemason or
Illuminati lodges, and were subsequently banned in 1793.
Early 19th century As the
Studentenorden were dissolved and their former members sought a possibility to continue their traditions, they began rebuilding a similar form of community under the then-common and insuspicious French word "
Corps". Symbols, oaths, regulations, and rituals were continued from the
Studentenorden tradition (although the secrecy was omitted for longevity's sake), and the Latin names, status designations, and affiliation with a country of origin were copied from the now-extinct
Landsmannschaften. A new characteristic was the heavy influence of
German idealism, in particular the works of
Kant and
Fichte. This resulted in a strong focus on forming young members to be strong, upright, and honorable, for the nation's "best and brightest" to spread these ideas throughout society. Political, especially geopolitical activities of
Corps as a whole were actively discouraged, as social commitment was seen as more promising and less controversial. Another characteristic was to unify all of a city's, and ultimately all of Germany's,
Corps under an umbrella organization and to vote on common rules and principles for each
Corps to abide by. Hence, the
KSCV was created in 1848. The oldest, still existing
Studentenverbindung,
Corps Guestphalia Halle, established in 1789, was a founding member.
Burschenschaft and rebellion against aristocracy (1832) The
Corps soon saw themselves heavily confronted by the
Burschenschaft, which was first founded in 1815. Sparked by the
nationalist sentiment after the
Napoleonic Wars, the members of the latter perceived the traditional forms of fraternities, who were still heavily affiliated with their state of origin, to be
reactionary and
elitist. Thus, they organized themselves into what was pictured as a single fraternity spanning all states of the German language, allowing the students to coordinate a nationalist revolution; i.e., a revolution to unify Germany and to abolish all princedoms. From the beginning, they were a dedicated political organization, in contrast to the
Corps. This early attempt failed in 1819 when the
Burschenschaft was fragmented, but the sentiment prevailed. At this occasion, the modern
German colors are mentioned for the first time in popular culture, in the seventh verse of
August Daniel von Binzer's song "
Wir hatten gebauet ein stattliches Haus", citing the colors of the Burschenschaft: Das Band ist zerschnitten, war schwarz, rot und gold, und Gott hat es gelitten, wer weiß was er gewollt! The ribbon is cut, t'was black, red, and gold, and God suffer'd it, who knows what his intent!
Karlsbad Decrees In the same year, due to general antisemitism prevalent in any social class, massive
antisemitic protests, mainly fueled by students, craftsmen, and traders (see
Hep-Hep riots) swept the German-speaking states, injuring and killing many. As a result, by the
Karlsbad Decrees, any self-regulating student body was forcibly dissolved, punishments were instituted, and government authority was significantly increased. This resulted in secret gatherings and smaller revolutionary acts, many of which are seen as the foundation for a German nation in today's world, such as the
Hambach festival in 1832, where the German colors flew as a flag for the first time, and the
Frankfurter Wachensturm in 1833, a failed attempt to take a large city's treasury to fund a revolution.
Revolution of 1848 and subsequent diversification (Bukovina), c. 1890. Tensions started to build, with short-lived, illegal fraternities forming, being dissolved, and reforming at all universities, peaking in the German
revolution of 1848 in which many members of
Studentenverbindungen took part. Although the unification of Germany failed violently, the
Studentenverbindungen emancipated themselves. Many of the members of the first
Frankfurt parliament were in fact
Corps students or
Burschenschaft members. Thus, the general concept flourished quickly, and soon, the
Studentenverbindungen were no longer seen as clubs of young rowdies and revolutionaries, but as a valuable school for the future. This allowed
Alte Herren to identify with the active members of their fraternities, and the idea of a lifelong commitment arose (
Lebensbundprinzip). Soon, the first
Stiftungsfeste, annual festivities in celebration of the fraternity's founding, were celebrated, further cementing their standing. As increased liberty allowed it, a more regulated form of duel was conceived: The modern
Mensur, which strived to reduce lethality rates while still being able to fence. The former objective, though, was greatly impaired by treatment possibilities, with infected wounds posing a substantial risk. During this time, the first Christian fraternities were established by religious students. Although some of them still took up weapons, many refused to do so from an ethical and religious standpoint. They often carried generic names, unifying themselves under an umbrella organization such as the
oecumenical Wingolf (with
Wingolf Bonn being the first in 1841). When the Catholic religion was beginning to be repressed during the
Kulturkampf, a large number of fraternities of Catholic belief were formed as a reaction. The first organization of decidedly Catholic origin was the
Schweizerische Studentenverein ("Swiss students' union") in 1841. These catholic fraternities understood themselves as an important network to counteract the
Kulturkampf. In 1848, a Germany-wide association of Corps was founded in
Bad Kösen, the so-called
Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband, KSCV, (roughly, "the Kösen association of the committees of the first men in charge"). It consisted solely of the old
Corps present at traditional liberal arts colleges and excluded those at technical colleges. In reaction, the
Weinheimer Senioren Convent, WSC, was established, which unified the latter. Today, the two umbrella organizations are tightly linked by a cooperation treaty, known as
Die Corps. The types of fraternities soon diversified, and formerly informal clubs, such as sports clubs influenced by the political ideas of
Turnvater Jahn (
Turnerschaften), academic choirs (
Sängerschaften), and groups influenced by the
progressive movement (
Landsmannschaften after the 17th century organizations) were reorganized. Each with their namesake as their central principle and idea of character building. Landsmannschaft Sorabia-Westfalen Münster is the oldest
Studentenverbindung of modern constitution. It was founded in 1716 in the City of Leipzig. A notable exception from these self-centered principles is the VVDSt (
Verband der Vereine Deutscher Studenten, "union of associations of German students"), which had a strict
antisemitic policy and was formed in 1881 as a decidedly political group. As a reaction, the first Jewish fraternities were established in the 1880s, prevailing until the
National Socialist regime.
Theodor Herzl, the founder of
zionism and a former
Burschenschaft student, was soon made an honorary member in many of these fraternities. Furthermore, Jewish fraternities were heavily focused on emancipating themselves through
duel and
Mensur. Finally, around the turn of the century, women were admitted to visit universities, unifying to sororities in 1899. The first such organization was the
Club der Namenlosen ("club of the nameless"), which was soon renamed to
Verein Studierender Frauen Deutschlands Hilaritas ("association of female students of Germany Hilaritas"). This diversification progressed to the point that the formerly despised students' culture heavily influenced society, especially affecting the language. During the
Wilhelminian Era, this development peaked, with the largest part of the academic community (active or alumni) being member in one or more of the over 1300 fraternities and even non-members cutting themselves with razors to simulate the appearance of the characteristic fencing wounds.
Bismarck and
Kaiser Wilhelm II are the most well-known of
Corps students and German fraternity students.
World War I, Weimar Republic, and National Socialist rule This lasted until World War I, which called all students to serve their country. Wartime fatalities substantially reduced the number of fraternity members and students in general. The violence the students had experienced at war, the uncertainty of the
Weimar Republic times and the deeply felt humiliation of the harsh conditions of the
Peace of Versailles caused many fraternity members to enlist in the newly founded
Freikorps, paramilitary organizations thought to protect democracy. As open battles between
Freikorps members and communist activists began, many quickly radicalized throughout society, resulting in formerly non-political fraternities developing an extreme nationalist, anti-communist, and antisemitic standpoint. As this was a fertile ground for the newly founded
NSDAP to flourish on, many soon committed themselves to its principles, with some, such as the
Burschenschaft, expelling Jews as early as 1920. When the NSDAP seized power in 1933, many rejoiced, although it was soon made clear that
Studentenverbindungen would not be allowed to persist. There are several exceptions, though, most notably the
Corps Saxo-Borussia, whose members loudly discussed on different occasions if "the fuehrer were to eat his asparagus with his knife, his fork, or his paws", concluding that he had "so large a gab, he would be able to eat it crosswise". This led to all
Studentenverbindungen being classified as "reactionary", and most of them either dissolved themselves or were forcibly closed between 1934 and 1938. The former members were then reorganized in
Kameradschaften ("comradeships") and forced to omit their principles of democratic vote, lifelong cooperation, honor, and tradition. In secrecy, though, many of the former customs were still practised, although with the outbreak of World War II, few remained to do so during the war.
Post-war times After the war, the remaining former members soon tried to reorganize themselves, often fusing two or more
Verbindungen to allow for greater impact, such as Guestphalia Bonn (West Germany) and Guestphalia Greifswald (East Germany). Although this was at first made illegal by the
occupation forces and universities, they slowly gained a foothold in society again (see
Corps Suevia). Special influences on this include several court decisions, amongst which are the decision that the
Mensur does not violate moral code in 1951, that public display of fraternity colors can not be punished by expulsion from the university (1958, so called "Freiburg color dispute") and the forced acceptance of the last fencing fraternity in Berlin in 1968, and the formal obligation to head of state
Theodor Heuss to abolish duels for honor. One side effect is that, due to this persistent struggle back to acceptance through legal action and sheer will of survival, post-war fraternities in Germany, unlike their pre-war selves, did not receive any university funding, but had also become completely free and independent of university regulation or oversight. While this allowed for progress and such was achieved during the 1950s and early 1960s, the
Verbindungen again took a hard hit in 1968 with the general socialist sentiment amongst the
student movement and their desire to abolish anything deemed reactionary. Many of the prejudices then expressed still form the base of what little is known to the public about
Verbindungen, resulting in a slow and steady decline in membership count since. A notable upswing was only delivered by the recent
Bologna process, depriving students of long-known means of studying and thus increasing the demand for assistance by experienced alumni.In 2013, less than one percent of German university students are active members of a
Studentenverbindung. The most prosperous
Studentenverbindungen can still be found in cities and towns with traditional
liberal arts colleges and universities like
Göttingen,
Bonn, and
Heidelberg in Germany, with
Munich being an exception. Traditional structures have mostly been preserved, with rituals, codes of honor, symbols, and principles still intact. Most
Studentenverbindungen still are restricted to only one gender, with the male varieties actively practising the
Mensur. However, many have formally repented for their presumed mistakes, with memorials of unjustly excluded Jews, for instance, being a common sight in a
Verbindungshaus. == Controversy ==