Like other offices of state in England, the Exchequer originally formed part of the
Curia Regis. The royal court was the centre of government administration and finance, no distinction was made between the King's money and the
public finances. It was also the seat of justice, cases being heard in the
Aula Regis (the
Great Hall of the king's palace). In origin,
His Majesty's Treasury was a strong box kept in the king's
chamber and therefore it was overseen by the king's
Chamberlains (who remained in charge even after it had been given a more secure and permanent base in
Winchester Castle). the Exchequer had begun to separate itself from the
Curia Regis and was operating more-or-less independently both as an administrative and as a judicial body. The oldest surviving
Pipe Roll is that of 1130, already in mature form (indicating that such records existed for some time beforehand, though they do not survive). Pipe Rolls form a mostly continuous record of royal revenues and taxation (though not all such revenue went into the Exchequer, so some taxes and levies were never recorded in the Pipe Rolls). The upper Exchequer (usually referred to simply as 'the Exchequer', formally the '''Court of His Majesty's Exchequer
) functioned as a Court of Audit: those appointed as Barons of the Exchequer would sit at the counting table (with its distinctive chequered cloth) where, one by one, the sheriffs of the kingdom (and others with responsibility for Crown revenues) would present themselves to account for monies (rents and other income) which they had received on behalf of the King. The lower Exchequer (known as the Exchequer of Receipt
, formally the Court of the Receipt of His Majesty's Exchequer''') was where these monies were deposited (and wooden
tally sticks issued as a receipt for each deposit). The two were inextricably connected: 'whatever is declared payable at the greater [upper] one is here [at the lower] paid; and whatever has been paid here is accounted for there'. The Exchequer of Receipt at this time only operated while the Exchequer itself was in session; afterwards the chests of money were taken and deposited in the Treasury at Winchester. Originally, the Exchequer's
jurisdiction covered only such matters as were associated with the king's revenue; however, owing to the Barons' experience in weighing evidence and passing judgements, the king began to look to the Exchequer to settle disputes between his subjects (particularly those concerning property and possessions). At that time, the only courts sitting at Westminster were the Exchequer and the
Curia Regis itself. During the reign of King
John, what would become the
Court of Common Pleas began to emerge, its explicit purpose being to hold pleas of 'all civil causes at Common Law between subject and subject in actions real personal and mixed'; the 'Plea side' ('hearing and determining personal suits and actions of law between subject and subject') continued operate, alongside the 'Revenue side', right up until the court's demise in the late-19th century.
Personnel In the upper Exchequer, the
Chief Justiciar (who presided, in the absence of the king) sat at the head of the table. Facing him (across the table) sat the sheriff (or other person) whose account was being examined. On the Justiciar's left sat the king's
Chancellor and others who had been appointed as Barons of the Exchequer for the duration of the session. The Chancellor attended with the
Great Seal of the Realm, which served as the
seal of the Exchequer. (Up until the early 13th century the Great Seal was ordinarily kept in the 'Treasury of the Exchequer' when not in use).
Barons of the Exchequer The Barons of the Exchequer were described in the
Dialogue as 'certain who excel in greatness and discretion, whether they be of the clergy or of the Court', sitting 'by the mere command of the Sovereign, and so with temporary authority'. Their role was 'to decide rights and to determine questions that arise; for the special science of the Exchequer consists not in accounts but in judgements of all sorts'. It was still the norm at this time for Great Officers of the State to serve as Barons by virtue of their office (though others would be appointed in their place if they were otherwise engaged, which often happened as they frequently had duties elsewhere). Those chosen to serve as Barons for the forthcoming session 'by reason of their office or by mandate of their prince' were called to attend by
writ of summons. At around the same time, the judicial business of the Exchequer began to be placed on a more formal footing: the earliest
plea rolls of the Exchequer date from 1236. The Barons, however, were more revenue specialists than
jurists at this time.
Clerks and other officers in the Great Roll of the Pipe for the Sixth Year of King Richard I, Michaelmas 1194. Seated along the long side of the table, at the right hand of the Justiciar, were the king's
Treasurer and the
clerks who were tasked with making a record of the proceedings: the Treasurer's clerk (later '
Clerk of the Pipe') was responsible for the Treasury Roll (also known as the
Great Roll of the Exchequer or Pipe Roll). The Chancellor's clerk (later '
Comptroller of the Pipe') was responsible for the Chancellor's Roll (which was a duplicate record of proceedings and served as a
counter-roll); he was also responsible for drawing up writs to be issued through the court. The Constable's clerk was also present (he played a key role in maintaining communication with the king's Court; for example, if a sheriff produced a writ from the king in court permitting or excusing him certain payments, the Constable's clerk would be responsible for producing the counter-writ and checking the one against the other). Facing them across the table sat the Chamberlains' serjeant (who had with him the counter-tallies from the lower Exchequer, for checking against the tallies brought by the sheriffs), the Chancellor's deputy (the
Magister Scriptorii, a forerunner of the
Master of the Rolls) and, between them, the 'calculator' responsible for placing the counters on the counting table. The king could appoint others to sit at the Exchequer in addition to the office-holders listed above; for example, the
Dialogue lists the Bishop of Winchester (
Richard of Ilchester) as having a seat at the table at that time (as a personal appointee rather than an office-holder) and also
Thomas Brun (who had been tasked with creating a third Exchequer Roll, so that the proceedings would be recorded in triplicate). During the 13th century the office of Chief Justiciar gradually receded in importance (it had disappeared by the end of the reign of
Henry III, i.e. by 1272). In place of the Justiciar, the king's Treasurer (whose influence in the realm was steadily growing) began to take precedence at the Exchequer. His role developed into the office of
Lord High Treasurer of England; those appointed to this office were invariably appointed Treasurer of the Exchequer at the same time, by issue of a separate
patent.
Chancellor of the Exchequer During the first part of the 13th century (by 1248 at the latest) the distinct office of
Chancellor of the Exchequer emerged. At around this time the
Chancery was increasingly gaining independence from the
Curia Regis. The king's Chancellor (subsequently termed
Chancellor of England) was now running a largely autonomous department of state. He continued to sit periodically as a Baron, but his clerk took over most of his other duties with regard to the Exchequer (and during the reign of
Henry III he began to be termed 'Chancellor of the Exchequer'). At the same time, the Exchequer was provided with its own seal (the Great Seal of the Realm no longer being to hand), which was placed in the Chancellor of the Exchequer's keeping; he also took custody of the Chancellor's Roll (the counter-roll to the Pipe Roll). By this time the Constable and Marshal were also represented by deputies termed Constable of the Exchequer and Marshal of the Exchequer respectively.
Remembrancers of the Exchequer In the mid-13th century a pair of Exchequer officers called
Remembrancers were appointed. Each kept what was known as a Memoranda Roll (one on behalf of the King, the other on behalf of the Treasurer); these supplemented the Pipe Roll by recording other items of Exchequer business from day to day. By 1299 each was distinctly titled: the
King's Remembrancer and the Treasurer's Remembrancer; and each went on to develop a distinct role: while the Treasurer's Remembrancer's office ensured the rendering of
duties to the Crown, the King's Remembrancer's office enforced the recovery of
debts to the Crown. 'Duties' due to the king included the 'rents, fines, issues, amerciaments and other things [...] received or levied by the Sheriff' (all of which therefore fell within the remit of the Office of the Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer); whereas 'debts' (administered by the Office of the King's Remembrancer) included payments arising from
torts and
trespasses, and other income not included on the Pipe Roll.
Others A distinct set of officers was responsible for the
assays which routinely took place as part of the accounting process, including the melter and the weigher. In common with other lay offices in the Exchequer, these (comparatively lucrative) positions were held
in fee, with deputies employed to perform the actual duties required; in time they became hereditary
sinecures. Another such officer was the Usher of the Exchequer, who was responsible for the security of the building and its treasures. He was also entrusted with conveying the writs of summons to their various recipients, for which he oversaw a corps of messengers. Other officers of the lower Exchequer included four
tellers (clerks, who received and counted the money) and an usher who (like his counterpart in the upper Exchequer) was responsible for security.
Operation The operation of the medieval Exchequer, as first described in the
Dialogue, is summarised below. By the fifteenth century this long-established
modus operandi had come to be referred to as the
Course of the Exchequer; appeal was frequently (and often selectively) made to the 'ancient Course' by officers of the Exchequer in order to justify claims of precedence and particular ways of working. It included a detailed statement of all amounts due (determined in part by reference to the previous year's Roll). Income to be accounted for usually included the county
farm (a fixed sum payable in lieu of income from from royal
demesne lands), debts carried over from the previous year,
amercements levied at the
general eyres and
forest eyres, taxes such as
scutage and
tallage, "
oblata" (payments made in return for favours) and other miscellaneous items. The summons came to be known as the 'Summons of the
Pipe'. It required the sheriff to bring to the Exchequer: money to be paid in, tallies (as proof of deposit) for money already paid in, and copies of any writs or quittances (which made allowances for out-of-pocket expenses). Information on amercements was estreated [extracted] in advance from the
plea rolls of the lower courts and sent to the Exchequer (in the form of an "estreat roll") to be incorporated in the summonses. Similarly, the
Chancery extracted information from its
fine rolls, which included a record of every
grant of land made in that office on which rents were reserved or fines payable; this was compiled into a document known as the "
originalia roll", which was likewise sent to the Exchequer to be used in the preparation of the summonses. When everything had been accounted for, the sheriff having been judged to have correctly paid all that was due, he was duly granted his
Quietus: a written statement of his acquittal.
Standard weights and measures Following the proclamation of
Magna Carta, legislation was enacted whereby the Exchequer would maintain the realm's
prototypes for the
yard and
pound. These nominal standards were, however, only infrequently enforced on the localities around the kingdom. In 1279, the Exchequer was given custody of standard pieces of gold and silver, to be used in the
Trial of the Pyx; when not in use they were kept in a strong box in the Pyx Chamber of Westminster Abbey, to which only the Chamberlains and Auditor of the Exchequer had keys.
Later developments (14th-17th centuries) Venue In the year 1300 the location of the Exchequer (which had formerly sat in other places from time to time) was permanently fixed at the Royal
Palace of Westminster. The Exchequer of Receipt stood to the east of Westminster Hall, north of
St Stephen's Chapel (in 1394 a set of cloisters, which still survive, were built within the space between the Chapel and the Receipt). In 1307 significant repairs were undertaken to the palace (during which time the Exchequer sat in Westminster Abbey). As part of this refurbishment a long hall was built, 'of the entire length of the upper wall of the palace, reaching along the Thames, for the judgments and solemnities of the treasurer and barons [of the exchequer]'; the Exchequer Chamber was also repaired at this time, and houses were erected 'for the convenience and use of the treasurer and barons of the exchequer'. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the former precincts of St Stephen's Chapel (including the cloisters) were converted into a grand house. In 1572 this dwelling reverted to the Crown and it began to be used by senior officers of the Exchequer of Receipt; between 1612 and 1794 it served as the official residence of the Auditor of the Receipt of the Exchequer. Subsequently the same residence became the
Speaker's House. The Tellers were accommodated in an adjoining building to the north. The King's Remembrancer had his offices at the west end of the court building; Although the Exchequer was the official way of receiving tax revenue for HM government, there was never a way of knowing how much one had at a given time. Any report would take years to come to fruition. (Accounts of income and expenditure would eventually be presented to Parliament under King
William III, but after the death of Queen Anne in 1714 this practice again fell into abeyance, and it would not be until 1823 that a full '
Balance-Sheet of the Public Income and Expenditure of the United Kingdom' began to be published annually). In time, these apposals took place in the Cursitor Baron's
chambers, rather than in open court, though the Cursitor Baron did hold court (in the Tally Court of the Exchequer of Receipt) for the twice yearly 'proffers' at which the sheriffs and others deposited their dues. Under Elizabeth I a pair of
auditors were appointed: the
Auditors of the Imprests. Operating out of the Exchequer, they were empowered to examine the accounts of all who had received public money on account or by way of
imprest. They later employed deputies to undertake their duties. In the late 18th century the Auditors of the Imprests were found to be in possession of two of the most lucrative sinecures held under the Crown; each received an annual income of over £16,000, while their audit was judged to be entirely ineffective. The records of the Exchequer were kept in the
Pell Office, adjacent to
Westminster Hall, until the 19th century. The office was named after the skins (then "pells" or pelts) from which the rolls were made.
Reform and decline (18th-19th centuries) 18th century The
Proceedings in Courts of Justice Act 1730 required the use of English (rather than Latin or
French) in English courts of law (including in the Court of Exchequer), but the
Court of the Receipt of HM Exchequer was explicitly exempted from the provisions of this Act. Following its own long-established practices, the Exchequer of Receipt continued to use an abbreviated form of Latin together with Exchequer numerals ('a corrupted form of the old
Roman figures') in its written records up until 1834. this finally took place forty-four years later, when the last of the Chamberlains died in 1826. In 1785 the Auditors of the Imprests were abolished, by an Act of Parliament which appointed in their place a body of five
Commissioners for Auditing the Public Accounts. Henceforward, 'all monies paid into the Exchequer, and not otherwise appropriated, [were] to be carried to the Consolidated Fund'. The passing of the
Restriction Act in 1797 led to
bank notes being accepted for payment of taxes; from that time a representative of the
Bank of England had to attend the Exchequer daily to verify and remove all notes paid in at the Exchequer. Shortly afterwards, the Bank was authorised to receive payments directly from various receivers of revenue (including
HM Customs, the
Excise Office, the
Stamp Office and others). Such payments were still technically made (and accounted for) at the Exchequer: transfer tickets were used by the Bank for the receipt and issue of funds (most offices in direct receipt of public funds had accounts at the Bank of England), and at the end of each day these were presented at the Exchequer of Receipt; the difference between the receipt and issue of funds was then reconciled by adding or subtracting money to or from the Tellers' chests. In 1833 an Act was passed 'for facilitating the Appointment of Sheriffs and the more effectual Audit and passing of their Accounts'. It described the established practice of auditing and passing the sheriffs' accounts in the Court of Exchequer as 'attended with unnecessary delay, expense and trouble'. Henceforth they were instead to submit their accounts to the
Commissioners of Audit. The Act further provided for the abolition of several offices of the Exchequer of Account (which were now rendered obsolete), including the Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer, the Clerk of the Pipe, the Comptroller of the Pipe, the Foreign Apposer, the Clerk of the Estreats and others. Any residual duties were to be vested in the
King's Remembrancer. A year later, in 1834, an Act was passed which reformed the Exchequer of Receipt: among others, the offices of Clerk of the Pells, Auditor of the Receipt of the Exchequer and the four Tellers of the Exchequer were all abolished. In their place a new official, the
Comptroller General of the Receipt and Issue of His Majesty's Exchequer, was appointed. An account was opened at the
Bank of England ('The Account of His Majesty's Exchequer') into which was deposited all the cash held in the Tellers' chests; thenceforward, government departments collecting revenue paid it directly in to the Bank. Outgoing payments became the responsibility of a new officer, the Paymaster of Civil Services (whose role would in 1848 be merged into that of
Paymaster General). (This took place after the office had fallen vacant following the death of
George Bankes). In 1866 the office of Comptroller General of the Exchequer was abolished and the Exchequer 'ceased to be a distinct Department of the State'. (whose office was named the
Exchequer and Audit Department from 1866 until 1983 when the new
National Audit Office was created). At the same time the
Standards Department of the
Board of Trade took over metrological responsibilities from the Comptroller General of the Exchequer; the standard weights and measures (previously held by the Chamberlains and then by the Auditor of the Receipt of the Exchequer) were moved to the
Jewel Tower, a surviving part of the old Palace of Westminster. Meanwhile, responsibility for the Trial of the Pyx was handed to the Treasury, and the old standard pieces of gold and silver were entrusted to the care of the
Royal Mint.
Modern Exchequer (20th-21st century) The ancient office of Chancellor of the Exchequer (Chancellor and Under-Treasurer of HM Exchequer) remains extant as the title of the lead minister in HM Treasury (which includes, among its junior ministers, an
Exchequer Secretary to the Treasury). The
Exchequer and Audit Departments Act 1866 continues to govern administration of the Consolidated Fund, which is held in the Exchequer account of the Bank of England. The full formal title of the Comptroller and Auditor General (the head of the National Audit Office) is
Comptroller General of the Receipt and Issue of His Majesty’s Exchequer and Auditor General of Public Accounts. The
Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881 provided that "the proceedings for the ordaining or
nominating of sheriffs directed by an Act passed in the fourteenth year of King Edward the First [...] shall henceforth in every year take place in the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice at the same time and in the same manner as hath been heretofore accustomed in the Court of Exchequer". The
Quit Rents ceremonies, which also take place on this occasion, were first attested (as an already well-established custom) in the reign of
Henry III, the
Sheriffs of London and Middlesex being required to account to the King in the Exchequer for certain pieces of land held in
farm.
Officers The following officers of the Exchequer were extant in 1800.
Revenue side Receipt side In 1834 the officers of the Exchequer of Receipt were replaced by the
Comptroller General of the Receipt and Issue of HM Exchequer. ==Other Exchequers==