Prehistory '' According to both genetic and
fossil evidence, it has been posited that
archaic Homo sapiens evolved into
anatomically modern humans in the Horn of Africa around 200,000 years ago and dispersed from there. The recognition of
Homo sapiens idaltu and
Omo Kibish as anatomically modern humans would justify the description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name
Homo sapiens sapiens. Because of their early dating and unique physical characteristics
idaltu and kibish represent the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans as suggested by the Out-of-Africa theory. crossing in the
Red Sea: now some wide, narrower in prehistory. In 2017 finds of modern human remains, dating to ca 300,000 years ago in
Jebel Irhoud in Morocco, suggested that modern humans arose earlier and possibly in a larger area of Africa than previously thought. East Africa is one of the earliest regions where
Homo sapiens are believed to have lived. Evidence was found in 2018, dating to about 320,000 years ago, at the Kenyan site of
Olorgesailie, of the early emergence of
modern behaviors associated with
Homo sapiens, including: long-distance trade networks (involving goods such as obsidian), the use of pigments, and the possible making of projectile points. It is observed by the authors of three 2018 studies on the site, that the evidence of these behaviors is approximately contemporary to the earliest known
Homo sapiens fossil remains from Africa (such as at Jebel Irhoud and
Florisbad), and they suggest that complex and modern behaviors had already begun in Africa around the time of the emergence of
Homo sapiens. In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260
CT scans, of a virtual
skull shape of the last common human ancestor to
modern humans/
H. sapiens, representative of the earliest
Homo sapiens, and suggested that
Homo sapiens arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in
South and East Africa. The migration route of the "Out of Africa" theory probably occurred in East Africa through the
Bab-el-Mandeb. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. are descendants of Tanzania's aboriginal, pre-
Bantu expansion hunter-gatherer population. Some of the earliest
hominin skeletal remains have been found in the wider region, including fossils discovered in the
Awash Valley of Ethiopia, as well as in the
Koobi Fora in Kenya and
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The southern part of East Africa was occupied until recent times by
Khoisan hunter-gatherers, whereas in the
Ethiopian Highlands the
donkey and such crop plants as
teff allowed the beginning of
agriculture around 7,000 BCE. Lowland barriers and diseases carried by the
tsetse fly, however, prevented the donkey and agriculture from spreading southwards. Only in quite recent times has agriculture spread to the more humid regions south of the equator, through the spread of
cattle,
sheep and crops such as
millet. Language distributions suggest that this most likely occurred from Sudan into the African Great Lakes region, since the
Nilotic languages spoken by these pre-Bantu farmers have their closest relatives in the middle Nile basin.
Ancient history Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and the
Red Sea coast of Sudan are considered the most likely location of the land known to the
Ancient Egyptians as
Punt. The old kingdom's first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. The ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with
Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh
Sahure and
Queen Hatshepsut. The
Kingdom of Aksum was a trading empire centered Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 CE, growing from the proto-Aksumite
Iron Age period to achieve prominence by the 1st century CE. The kingdom is mentioned in the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important marketplace for
ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by
Zoskales, who also governed the port of
Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own
Aksumite currency. The state also established its
hegemony over the declining
Kingdom of Kush.
Bantu expansion Between 2500 and 3000 years ago,
Bantu-speaking
peoples began a millennia-long series of migrations eastward from their homeland around southern Cameroon. This
Bantu expansion introduced agriculture into much of the African Great Lakes region. During the following fifteen centuries, the Bantu slowly intensified farming and grazing over all suitable regions of East Africa, in the process making contact with
Austronesian- and
Arabic-speaking settlers on southern coastal areas. The latter also spread
Islam to the coastal belt, but most Bantu remained
African Traditional Religion adherents. Over a period of many centuries, most hunting-foraging peoples were displaced and absorbed by incoming Bantu communities, as well as by later
Nilotic communities. The
Bantu expansion was a long series of physical migrations, a diffusion of language and knowledge out into and in from neighboring populations, and a creation of new societal groups involving inter-marriage among communities and small groups moving to communities and small groups moving to new areas. After their movements from their original homeland in
West Africa, Bantus also encountered in central east Africa peoples of
Cushitic origin. As cattle terminology in use amongst the few modern Bantu
pastoralist groups suggests, the Bantu migrants would acquire
cattle from their new Cushitic neighbors. Linguistic evidence also indicates that Bantus most likely borrowed the custom of milking cattle directly from Cushitic peoples in the area. On the coastal section of the African Great Lakes region, another mixed Bantu community developed through contact with
Muslim Arab and
Persian traders, leading to the development of the mixed Arab, Persian and African
Swahili City States. The
Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many
Afro-Arab members of the Bantu
Swahili people. With its original speech community centered on the coastal parts of
Tanzania (particularly
Zanzibar) and
Kenya—a seaboard referred to as the
Swahili Coast—the Bantu
Swahili language contains many
Arabic loan-words as a consequence of these interactions. Its important to note that Kiswahili grammar and structure are purely African and Bantu even if its vocabulary has non-African influence in the same way English remains a Germanic language regardless of its vocabulary being heavily influenced by Latin and French among other languages. The earliest Bantu inhabitants of the east coast of Kenya and Tanzania encountered by these later Arab and Persian settlers have been variously identified with the trading settlements of
Rhapta,
Azania and
Menouthias referenced in early Greek and Chinese writings from 50 CE to 500 CE, ultimately giving rise to the name for
Tanzania. These early writings perhaps document the first wave of Bantu settlers to reach central east Africa during their migration. Between the 14th and 15th centuries, large African Great Lakes kingdoms and states emerged, such as the
Buganda and
Karagwe The
Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by the
Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by da Gama to break the once Venetian trading monopoly. Portuguese rule in the African Great Lakes region focused mainly on a coastal strip centered around Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in the area officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of
Don Francisco de Almeida conquered
Kilwa, an island located in what is now southern
Tanzania. In March 1505, having received from
Manuel I of Portugal the appointment of viceroy of the newly conquered
territory in India, he set sail from
Lisbon in command of a large and powerful fleet, and arrived in July at Quiloa (
Kilwa), which yielded to him almost without a struggle. A much more vigorous resistance was offered by the
Moors of Mombasa. However, the town was taken and destroyed, and its large treasures went to strengthen the resources of Almeida. Attacks followed on Hoja (now known as Ungwana, located at the mouth of the
Tana River),
Barawa,
Angoche,
Pate and other coastal towns until the western
Indian Ocean was a safe haven for Portuguese commercial interests. At other places on his way, such as the island of
Angediva, near
Goa, and
Cannanore, the Portuguese built forts, and adopted measures to secure the Portuguese supremacy. Portugal's main goal on the Swahili coast was to take control of the spice trade from the
Arabs. At this stage, the Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purposes of controlling trade within the Indian Ocean and securing the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels were very disruptive to the commerce of Portugal's enemies within the western Indian Ocean and were able to demand high tariffs on items transported through the sea due to their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of
Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 was meant to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the
British,
Dutch and
Omani
Arab incursions into the Great Lakes region during the 17th century. and their captives on the
Ruvuma River The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in the African Great Lakes region. By this time, the
Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice trade sea route due to the decreasing profitability of that business. The Arabs reclaimed much of the
Indian Ocean trade, forcing the Portuguese to retreat south where they remained in
Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique) as sole rulers until the 1975 independence of Mozambique. Omani Arab
colonization of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent
city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of clove
plantations, intensification of the
slave trade and relocation of the Omani capital to
Zanzibar in 1839 by
Seyyid Said consolidated the Omani power in the region. The
French settled the largest island of the Indian Ocean (and the fourth-largest globally),
Madagascar, along with a group of smaller islands nearby, namely
Réunion and the
Comoros. Madagascar
became part of the
French colonial empire following
two military campaigns against the
Kingdom of Madagascar, which it initiated after persuading Britain to relinquish its interests in the island in exchange for control of
Zanzibar off the coast of
Tanganyika, an important island hub of the
spices trade. The British also held a number of island colonies in the region, including the extended
archipelago of
Seychelles and the rich farming island of
Mauritius, previously under the French
sovereignty. during the
East African campaign in November 1917 The
German Empire gained control of a large area named
German East Africa, comprising present-day
Rwanda,
Burundi and the mainland part of
Tanzania named Tanganyika. In 1922, the British gained a
League of Nations mandate over Tanganyika which it administered until Independence was granted to Tanganyika in 1961. Following the Zanzibar Revolution of 1965, the independent state of Tanganyika formed the
United Republic of Tanzania by creating a union between the mainland, and the island chain of Zanzibar. Zanzibar is now a semi-autonomous state in a union with the mainland which is collectively and commonly referred to as
Tanzania. German East Africa, though very extensive, was not of such strategic importance as the
British Crown's colonies to the north: the inhabitation of these lands was difficult and thus limited, mainly due to climatic conditions and the local geomorphology. Italy gained control of various parts of
Somalia in the 1880s. The southern three-fourths of Somalia became an Italian
protectorate (
Italian Somaliland). Meanwhile, in 1884, a narrow coastal strip of Somaliland came under British control (
British Somaliland). This Somaliland protectorate was just opposite the British colony of
Aden on the
Arabian Peninsula. With these territories secured, Britain was able to serve as gatekeeper of the
sea lane leading to
British India. In 1890, beginning with the purchase of the small port town of
Asseb from a local sultan in
Eritrea, the Italians colonized all of Eritrea. , 1936 In 1895, from bases in Somalia and Eritrea, the Italians launched the
First Italo–Ethiopian War against the
Orthodox Empire of
Ethiopia. By 1896, the war had become a total disaster for the Italians and Ethiopia was able to retain its independence. Ethiopia remained independent until 1936 when, after the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War, it became part of
Italian East Africa. The Italian occupation of Ethiopia ended in 1941 during
World War II as part of the
East African Campaign. The French also staked out an East African outpost on the route to
French Indochina. Starting in the 1850s, the small protectorate of
Djibouti became
French Somaliland in 1897.
Post-colonial period Conflicts Since the end of colonialism, several East African countries have been riven with military coups, ethnic violence and oppressive dictators. The region has endured the following post-colonial conflicts: , June 2021 ; Northern East Africa:(Horn of Africa) •
Ethiopian Civil War 1974–1991 •
Eritrean War of Independence 1961–1991 •
Eritrean-Ethiopian War 1998–2000 •
Ogaden War 1977–1978 •
Dijboutian Civil War 1991–1994 •
Somali Civil War 1991–2009 •
Tigray war 2020–2022 ; Northern East Africa:(Sudan) •
First Sudanese Civil War •
Second Sudanese Civil War •
Sudanese nomadic conflicts •
War in Darfur •
War in Sudan 2023–present, May 2011 ; South Sudan •
Second Sudanese Civil War 1983–2005 •
Internal Political-ethnic Conflict 2011–ongoing •
South Sudanese Civil War 2013–2015 ; Southern East Africa (Southeast Africa) •
Burundian Civil War 1993–2005 and the
genocide of Hutus in 1972 and the genocide of Tutsis in 1993 •
Uganda–Tanzania War 1978–1979 •
Ugandan Bush War 1981–1986 •
Lord's Resistance Army insurgency in
Uganda,
South Sudan and
Democratic Republic of the Congo ongoing •
Rwandan Civil War 1990–1993 and the
Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi •
Zanzibar Revolution 1964 ; Externalized conflicts involving Southeast African states •
First Congo War 1996–1997 and
Second Congo War 1998–2003 •
Kivu Conflict (Laurent Nkunda Rebellion)
Kenya has enjoyed relatively stable governance. However, its politics have been turbulent at times, including the
attempted coup d'état in 1982 and the
2007 election riots.
Tanzania has known a stable government since independence although there are significant political and religious tensions resulting from the political union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous state in the
United Republic of Tanzania. were killed during the 1994
Rwandan genocide. Tanzania and
Uganda fought the
Uganda–Tanzania War in 1978–1979, which led to the removal of Uganda's despotic leader
Idi Amin.
Burundi,
Rwanda, and
Uganda have each faced instability and ethnic conflict since independence, most notably, they experienced the 1994
Rwandan genocide and the 1993
Burundi genocide and the subsequent
Burundian Civil War.
Rwanda and
Uganda continue to be involved in related conflicts outside the region.
Djibouti, as well as the
Puntland and
Somaliland regions of Somalia, have seen relative stability.
South Sudan peacefully seceded from
Sudan in 2011, six and a half years after a
peace agreement ended the
Second Sudanese Civil War. South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by the
South Kordofan conflict, particularly, South Sudanese independence was nearly derailed by a dispute over the status of the
Abyei Area, and Abyei and South Kordofan's
Nuba Hills both remained sources of tension between
Juba and
Khartoum . == Geography==