Catholic Church Catholic Mass In the
Catholic Church, the Communion bread is fervently revered in view of the Church's doctrine that, when bread and wine are consecrated during the Eucharistic celebration, they cease to be bread and wine and become the body and blood of Jesus. The empirical appearances continue to exist unchanged, but the reality believed to be changed by the power of the Holy Spirit, who has been called down upon the bread and wine. The separate consecrations of the bread (known as the
host) and of the wine symbolizes the separation of Jesus' body from his blood at Calvary. However, since Catholicism also teaches that Jesus
rose from the dead and was
assumed in body and spirit into Heaven, the Church teaches that the body and blood of Jesus are no longer actually separated, as where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or other minister) says "The Body of Christ" when administering the host and "The Blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the
communicant who receives either one receives Jesus, whole and entire, body and blood, soul and divinity. This belief is succinctly summarised in St.
Thomas Aquinas' hymn, . The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine began to be called "transubstantiation" in the 11th century. The earliest known text in which the term appears is a sermon of 1079 by
Gilbert of Savardin,
Archbishop of Tours, ( CLXXI 776). The first appearance of the term in a papal document was in the letter of
Pope Innocent III to
John of Canterbury on 29 November 1202, then briefly in the decree of the
Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and afterward in the book "Iamdudum" sent to the Armenians in the year 1341. An explanation utilizing Aristotle's
hylomorphic theory of reality did not appear until the 13th century, with
Alexander of Hales (died 1245). The actual moment of change is believed to be the priest's
liturgical recitation of the
Words of Institution: "This is my Body ..." and "This is the Chalice of my Blood ...". , the chalice is shown to the people immediately after the consecration of the wine. The Eucharist is a
sacrifice in that it literally re-presents (in the sense of "makes present again") the same sacrifice offered by Jesus on the cross, wherein the sacrifice of Jesus and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are considered one single sacrifice; the Eucharist is not considered to sacrifice Jesus a second time. The Mass is a liturgical representation of a sacrifice that makes present what it represents through the action of God in an unbloody manner. The Eucharist is not merely a commemoration of Jesus' sacrifice on
Golgotha: it also makes that sacrifice truly present. The priest and victim of the sacrifice are one and the same (Jesus), with the difference that the Eucharist is offered in an unbloody manner. The only ministers who can officiate at the Eucharist and consecrate the sacrament are ordained priests (either bishops or priestly
presbyters) acting in the person of Christ (). In other words, the priest celebrant represents Jesus himself, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God the Father in the name of the Catholic Church, always using "we" not "I" during the Eucharistic prayer. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is considered essential for validity. Catholics may receive Holy Communion outside of Mass, normally only as the host. Consecrated hosts are kept in a
tabernacle after the celebration of Mass and brought to the sick or dying during the week. A large consecrated host is sometimes displayed in a
monstrance outside of Mass, to be the focus of prayer and
Eucharistic adoration. The Eucharistic celebration is seen as the foundation and the very centre of all Catholic devotion. One of the
seven Sacraments, it is referred to as the
Blessed Sacrament, and is taught to bestow grace upon the recipient, assisting with repentance and with the avoidance of
venial sin. The "self-offering of the believer in union with Christ", and the transformation of the believer into conforming with the Holy Spirit implicit in the symbolism, is understood as integral to the disposition needed for the fruitful reception of Communion. Reception of Communion and of the sacrament of
Confession is a condition for receiving
indulgences granted for some acts of piety. For fear of
desecration, the Eucharist may not be received by any in a state of
mortal sin, nor by non-Catholics; Catholics aware of being in a state of mortal sin must
repent and make
confession to a priest before they can receive the Holy Eucharist. For a Catholic to receive the Eucharist in a state of mortal sin is considered to be a grave
sacrilege.
Eastern Orthodox Church (
host) and
chalice during an
Eastern Orthodox celebration of the
Liturgy of St. James The Eucharist is at the center of Eastern Christian faith communities, both Eastern Orthodox and
Eastern Catholic. Eastern Orthodox Christians affirm the real presence in the
Sacred Mysteries (
consecrated bread and wine), which they believe to be the actual body and blood of Jesus, transformed through the operation of the Holy Spirit. The Eucharist is normally received in the context of the Divine Liturgy. In Orthodox Eucharistic theology, though many separate Divine Liturgies may be celebrated geographically, the bread and wine present is considered to be part of one whole, rather than numerous different existences of the body and blood of Jesus appearing, separate from each other. The
Eastern Orthodox Church has never clarified or made statement on the exact nature of transformation of the bread and wine, nor gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic Church has with the doctrine of
transubstantiation, which was formulated after the
Great Schism of 1054; the Eastern Orthodox churches have never formally affirmed or denied this doctrine, preferring to state simply that it is a "Mystery", while at the same time using, as in the
1672 Synod of Jerusalem, language that may appear similar as to that used by the Roman Catholic Church. The
Anaphora (Eucharistic prayer) contains an
anamnesis (lit. "making present"), a liturgical statement recounting the historical facts of Jesus' death, including the Eucharist, Passion, Resurrection and Ascension; in the Eastern Christian churches, the anamnesis is also considered to make these aspects of Jesus' ministry present, forming a link to these events. The Anaphora ends with an
epiclesis ("calling down from on high") during which the
priest invokes the Holy Spirit to come and "change" the Gifts (elements of bread and wine) into the actual body and blood of Jesus. The Orthodox do not link the moment the Gifts change to the
Words of Institution, or indeed to any one particular moment, instead affirming that the change is completed at the Epiclesis. Communion is given only to baptized,
chrismated Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer, and confession (different rules apply for children, elderly, sick, pregnant, etc. and are determined on a case-by-case basis by parish priests). The priest administers the Gifts with a spoon directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice. From baptism, young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy Communion. The holy gifts reserved for the
Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts or communion of the sick are specially consecrated as needed, especially on
Holy Thursday. They are kept in an elaborately decorated
tabernacle, a container on the altar often in the shape of a church or of a dove. Generally, Eastern Christians do not adore the consecrated bread outside the Liturgy itself. However, they prostrate to the ground during the transfer of the Holy Gifts during the Presanctified Liturgy (the "Entrance"), as a sign of utmost reverence. After the Eucharist has been given to the congregation, the priest or the deacon has to consume the Holy Gifts that are left. The most perfect expression of the Eucharistic unity of the Eastern churches is considered to be found in the Hierarchical Divine Liturgy (a liturgy at which a
bishop is the chief celebrant), as, following the writings of
Ignatius of Antioch, the church is considered to be fully present in the presence of a bishop surrounded by clergy and members of the congregation.
Lutheran churches the
host during the celebration of the
Holy Mass at
Alsike Church,
Sweden Lutherans believe that the body and blood of Jesus are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of
consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true body and blood of Jesus himself in the Sacrament of the Eucharist whether they are believers or unbelievers. The Lutheran doctrine of the real presence is also known as the
sacramental union. This theology was first formally and publicly confessed in the
Wittenberg Concord. The Lutheran view has erroneously been called "
consubstantiation", and Lutheran theologians reject the use of this term as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name. Lutherans use the term "in, with and under the forms of consecrated bread and wine" and "sacramental union" to distinguish their understanding of the Eucharist from those of the Reformed and other traditions.). This is also practiced in many European Lutheran churches as well. Other American Lutheran churches, such as the
Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, practice
open communion (meaning the Eucharist is offered to adults without receiving the catechetical instruction, as long as they are a
baptized Christian). A number of Lutheran churches, monasteries and convents celebrate the Mass daily.
Moravian Church and Hussite Church Nicolaus Zinzendorf, a
bishop of the Moravian Church, stated that Holy Communion is the "most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour". Many Moravian theologians though, believe that the
Lutheran doctrine of the
sacramental union properly defines the way that Christ is present in Holy Communion, and have historically promulgated that view. During the Moravian service of Holy Communion, only the scriptural words of institution are used, and thematic hymns are sung during the serving of the sacrament. The Moravian Church practices
open communion: all baptized Christians who have confirmed their faith may join in Holy Communion.
Reformed churches (Continental Reformed, Presbyterians and Congregationalists) .
Reformed Christians (
Continental Reformed,
Congregationalist,
Presbyterian,
Reformed Anglican, and
Reformed Baptist denominations) hold that Jesus' body and blood are really present in a spiritual way. The Presbyterian churches have always emphasized the "Pneumatic Presence" or "Real Presence" in the bread and wine. This meaning that Christians feed upon the body and blood of Jesus in a spiritual sense, as John Calvin had written. According to Presbyterian doctrine, The Eucharist or Holy Communion is considered "a sacrament of continuous growth, nourishment and new life". In their understanding of the Reformed tradition, the participation in this sacrament should follow the sacrament of baptism. Just as humans need food and drink for nurture and sustenance, Calvin wrote that the Lord's Supper is God's way of providing for the maintenance of sinful humans during the whole course of their lives after they have been received into God's family, in what Presbyterians call "the Covenant Community". Both sacraments (Baptism and Lord's Supper), according to Presbyterian theology, provide a visible and graphic way of presenting God's promises. The
Presbyterian Church quotes the words of John Calvin "a testimony of divine grace toward us, confirmed by an outward sign, with mutual attestation of our piety toward [God]". According to them, a sacrament is a testimony of God's favor toward the church, confirmed by an outward sign, with a mutual testifying of man's godliness toward God. It is a primal physical act in the Church that signifies a spiritual relationship between personal beings. The Directory for Worship in the Presbyterian
Book of Order encourages the "appropriateness" of frequent celebrations of the Lord's Supper. A few Presbyterian congregations have begun celebrations of the sacrament as often as each Sunday and on other occasions of special significance in the life of the Christian community. On Presbyterian liturgical seasons, such as Holy Week and Easter, the Lord's Supper is especially celebrated and observed in Presbyterian churches. However, frequency alone is not the basic issue in Presbyterianism. Some believe that they need to restore the Biblical pattern of the Lord's Supper on each Sunday to provide a disciplined reminder of a divine act that will help centralize and "re-focus" the rhythm of people's daily lives. The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. There are also small minorities on the one hand who affirm transubstantiation or, on the other, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether in favour of a pneumatic presence. The classic Anglican
aphorism with regard to this debate is found in a poem by
John Donne (sometimes attributed to
Elizabeth I): The historic, Reformed Anglican view known as
receptionism common among 16th and 17th-century Anglican theologians is that, although in the Eucharist the bread and wine remain unchanged, the faithful communicant receives together with them the body and blood of Jesus. of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to
Pope Leo XIII's Papal Encyclical . In 1971, the Anglican and Roman Catholic International Commission announced that it had reached "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation and the later (1979) Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement, but this was questioned in 1991 by the
Official Roman Catholic Final Response to the ARCIC Full Report.
Methodist churches consecrates the elements
Methodists understand the eucharist to be an experience of God's grace, being a
sacrament. In keeping with
Wesleyan-Arminian theology, God's unconditional love makes the table of God's grace accessible to all, a concept referred to as
open communion, though in certain Methodist connexions, the minister meets with the
class meeting beforehand to examine those who wish to communicate (see ). Inheriting the Reformed Anglican view of the Eucharist, according to the "Article XVIII – Of the Lord's Supper" in the Methodist
Articles of Religion: There are various acceptable modes of receiving the Eucharist for Methodists. Some Methodists kneel at
communion rails, which delimit the
chancel in which the
altar (also called the communion table) lies. In other churches, communicants approach the minister who administers the elements in front of the chancel. Methodist Churches ordinarily use "pure, unfermented juice of the grape" instead of alcoholic wine (reflecting its historic commitment to teetotalism), and either leavened yeast bread or unleavened bread. The elements may be distributed in small cups, but the use of a common cup and the practice of communion by intinction (where the bread is dipped into the common cup and both elements are consumed together) is a common among many Methodists. Methodists believe that the Lord's Supper is a sign and seal of the
covenant of grace, reflecting
Wesleyan covenant theology: Methodists have typically affirmed that the sacrament of Holy Communion is an instrumental
Means of Grace through which the real spiritual presence of Jesus is communicated to the believer, but have otherwise allowed the details to remain a mystery. In 2004, the United Methodist Church reaffirmed its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled
This Holy Mystery. The Methodist Church holds the position of unequivocal recognition of the anamnesis as more than just a memorial, but instead a re-presentation of Jesus: Methodists, in affirming the Real Spiritual Presence, assert that Jesus is really present, and that the way he is present is a "Holy Mystery"; a common Methodist hymn sung during the celebration of the Lord's Supper is
Come Sinners to the Gospel Feast, written by Methodist
Charles Wesley, which includes the following stanza: Methodists believe that Holy Communion should not only be available to the clergy in both forms (the bread and the cup), but to the layperson as well. According to Article XIX of the
Methodist Articles of Religion: In conformity with
The Sunday Service of the Methodists, Methodism's first liturgical text, in congregations of the
Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection,
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church,
Bethel Methodist Church, Bible Holiness Church,
Congregational Methodist Church,
Evangelical Methodist Church,
Evangelical Wesleyan Church,
First Congregational Methodist Church,
Free Methodist Church,
Lumber River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Church,
Metropolitan Church Association,
Pilgrim Holiness Church,
Wesleyan Holiness Association of Churches, among many other Methodist
connexions, the presider says the following when delivering the Eucharistic elements to each of the faithful (which is reflective of the Methodist teachings of the real presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper and the Lord's Supper being a sacramental means of grace): This affirmation of Real Presence is further illustrated in the language of the United Methodist Eucharistic Liturgy where, in the
epiclesis of the
Great Thanksgiving, the celebrating minister prays over the elements: The
Salvation Army, though upholding Wesleyan-Arminian theology, does not practice the sacrament of Holy Communion as it considers it to be "non-essential to Christian faith".
Anabaptist churches The
Seven Ordinances observed in the
Conservative Anabaptist churches include "
baptism,
communion,
footwashing,
marriage,
anointing with oil, the
holy kiss, and the
prayer covering." In the early Anabaptist
Schleitheim Confession,
breaking of bread is the term used for the
Lord's Supper, also known as communion or eucharist.
A Short Confession of Faith, compiled by the early Anabaptist theologian Hans de Ries, articulated the belief in the real spiritual presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper: In
Anabaptism, the corporate nature (fellowship, unity) of participation is emphasized to a greater degree than other Christian denominations.
Pilgram Marpeck wrote, "As members of one body, we proclaim the death of Christ and bodily union attained by untainted brotherly love." Marpeck further wrote, "The true meaning of communion is mystified and obscured by the word sacrament." In connection with the Lord's supper, many Anabaptists stress the rite of
feet washing. Anabaptists do not as much emphasize the presence of Jesus in the eucharistic elements themselves, but the "mystery of communion with the living Christ in his Supper [that] comes into being by the power of the Spirit, dwelling in and working through the collected members of Christ's Body".
Baptist churches Reformed Baptists, in agreement with Presbyterians and other Reformed churches, hold to the doctrine of
Pneumatic presence. The doctrine is articulated in the
1689 Baptist Confession of Faith and the
Catechism. It holds that the Lord's Supper to be a means of "spiritual nourishment and growth", stating: The
Southern Baptist Convention, the world's largest Baptist denomination, officially holds to a
memorialist view of the Lord's Supper.
Irvingian churches Edward Irving, who founded the Irvingian churches, such as the
New Apostolic Church, taught the real presence of Jesus in the Eucharist, emphasizing "the humanity of Christ in the Lord's Supper." Additionally, the Irvingian churches affirm the "real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion": Elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services. The
Plymouth Brethren hold the Lord's Supper, or the Breaking of Bread, instituted in the upper room on Christ's betrayal night, to be the weekly remembrance feast enjoined on all true Christians. They celebrate the supper in utmost simplicity. Among "closed" Brethren assemblies usually any one of the brothers gives thanks for the loaf and the cup. In conservative "open" Brethren assemblies usually two different brothers give thanks, one for the loaf and the other for the cup. In liberal "open" Brethren assemblies (or churches/community chapels, etc.) sisters also participate with audible prayer. The
Racovian Catechism of Unitarian Christianity teaches that "this rite is to be observed for the purpose of commemorating or showing forth the kindness manifested by Christ towards us".
Jehovah's Witnesses The
Jehovah's Witnesses view the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper as symbolically representing and commemorating the sinless body and blood of the Jesus, but do not consider that the elements become supernaturally altered, or that Jesus' actual physical presence is literally in the bread and wine. Instead, the elements (which they generally call "emblems") are commemorative and symbolic, and are consecrated for the Lord's Supper observance, being figurative of the body and blood of Jesus, as the true "
Lamb of God", and view the celebration as an anti-typical fulfillment of the
Jewish Passover celebration, which memorialized the freeing and rescuing of God's people, the
Israelites, from bondage in Egypt. The Witnesses commemorate Jesus' death as a
ransom or
propitiatory sacrifice by observing a Memorial annually on the evening that corresponds to the Passover,
Nisan 14, according to the
Jewish calendar. They refer to this observance generally as "the Lord's Evening Meal" or the "Memorial of Christ's Death", taken from Jesus' words to his Apostles, "do this as a memorial of me" (Luke 22:19). They believe that this is the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians in the Bible. Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only
144,000 people will receive heavenly salvation and immortal life and thus spend eternity with God and Jesus in heaven, with glorified bodies, as under-priests and co-rulers under
Christ the King and
High Priest, in
Jehovah's Kingdom. Paralleling the
anointing of kings and priests, they are referred to as the "anointed" class and the only ones who should partake of the bread and wine. They believe that the baptized "
other sheep" of Jesus' flock, or the "
great crowd", also benefit from the
ransom sacrifice, and are respectful observers and viewers of the Lord's Supper remembrance at these special meetings of Jehovah's witnesses. The Memorial, held after sundown, includes a sermon on the meaning and importance of the celebration and gathering, and includes the circulation and viewing among the audience of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread (matzo). Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the bread symbolizes and represents Jesus' perfect body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine represents his perfect blood which he shed at Calvary and redeems fallen man from inherited sin and death. The wine and the bread (sometimes referred to as "emblems") are viewed as symbolic and commemorative; the Witnesses do not believe in
transubstantiation or
consubstantiation; so not a literal presence of flesh and blood in the emblems, but that the emblems are simply sacred symbolisms and representations, denoting what was used in the first Lord's Supper, and which figuratively represent the ransom sacrifice of Jesus and sacred realities.
Quakers Quakers' Eucharistic theology is
Memorialism: "The bread and wine remind us of Jesus' body and blood." However, they also hold to suspension: they do not practice Holy Communion in their worship, believing it was not meant to be a perpetually mandated ritual. Nonetheless, Quakers understand all of life as being sacramental: "We believe in the baptism of the Holy Spirit and in communion with that Spirit. If the believer experiences such spiritual baptism and communion, then no rite or ritual is necessary. ... The Quaker ideal is to make every meal at every table a Lord's Supper."
Latter Day Saint movement Among
Latter Day Saints (Mormons), the Eucharist (referred to as the "Sacrament") is partaken in remembrance of the blood and body of Jesus. It is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at
baptism, which is to take upon oneself the name of Jesus. As such, it is considered efficacious only for baptized members in good standing. However, the unbaptized are not forbidden from communion, and it is traditional for children not yet baptized (baptism occurs only after the age of eight) to participate in communion in anticipation of baptism. Those who partake of the Sacrament promise always to remember Jesus and keep his commandments. The prayer also asks God the Father that each individual will be blessed with God's Spirit. The Sacrament is offered weekly and all active members are taught to prepare to partake of each opportunity. It is considered to be a weekly renewal of a member's commitment to follow Jesus, and a plea for forgiveness of sins. The Latter Day Saints do not have official teachings which outline any kind of literal presence. They view the bread and water as symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus. Currently
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses water instead of wine. Early in their history, the Sacrament wine was often purchased from enemies of the church. To remove any opportunity for poisoned or unfit wine for use in the Sacrament, it is believed a revelation from the Lord was given that stated "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament, if it so be that ye do it with an eye single to my glory—remembering unto the Father my body which was laid down for you, and my blood which was shed for the remission of your sins." After this time, water was permitted in place of wine, but the church continued to use wine for the sacrament until the early 20th century. As the church's prohibition on alcohol became solidified in the early 20th century, water became the liquid of choice for the Sacrament, although in situations where clean water and/or fresh bread is unavailable the closest equivalent may be used. ==See also==