The earliest
Neolithic sites in the flood plains of Kashmir Valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at
Burzahom, which had two Neolithic and one
Megalithic phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted until c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of
subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases. In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery. During the later
Vedic period, as kingdoms of the
Vedic tribes expanded, the
Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir. In 326 BCE,
Porus asked
Abisares, the king of Kashmir, to aid him against
Alexander the Great in the
Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants. During the reign of
Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the
Maurya Empire and
Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many
stupas, some shrines dedicated to
Shiva, and the city of Srinagari (
Srinagar) were built.
Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the
Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur. Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the
Fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as
Ashvagosha,
Nagarjuna and
Vasumitra took part. By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir.
Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor
Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the
Chang'an monastery. The
Alchon Huns under
Toramana crossed over the
Hindu Kush mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir. His son
Mihirakula (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of
North India. He was opposed by
Baladitya in
Magadha and eventually defeated by
Yasodharman in
Malwa. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of
Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.
Hindu Dynasties A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled over the region from the 7th-14th centuries. After the seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion. Among notable scholars of this period was
Vasugupta (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the
Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a
monistic Shaiva system called
Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by
Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism. Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in
Southern India. Central shrine, dedicated to the deity
Surya. The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the
Karkota dynasty,
Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complex on the Indian Subcontinent. In the eighth century, the
Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers of Kashmir. Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor
Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated
Yashovarman of
Kanyakubja and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha,
Kamarupa,
Gauda, and
Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and
Gujarat and defeated
Arabs at
Sindh. After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE. The Utpala dynasty founded by
Avantivarman followed the Karkotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against
Gurjaras in
Punjab. Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir until they were defeated by Chakravarman.
Queen Didda, who descended from the
Hindu Shahis of
Udabhandapura on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century. After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to the
Lohara dynasty. Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a
Turkic–
Mongol chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir in about 1320. His wife, Queen
Kota Rani ruled until 1339. She is often credited for the construction of a canal, named "
Kutte Kol" after her, diverting the waters of the Jhelum to prevent frequent flooding in Srinagar. During the 11th century,
Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not take by siege the fortress at Lohkot. == Muslim rulers ==