s
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) United by
their new faith after the death of
Muhammad in 632, the
Rashidun armies launched
campaigns of conquest of the surrounding territories controlled by the Sassanians and Romans, effectually establishing what is known in Islamic chronology as the
Rashidun Caliphate. The state was centered at the
Hejaz, in particular in
Medina from 632 until 656 CE, when
Ali moved the capital to
Kufa.
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) in
Kairouan,
Tunisia was founded in 670 by the Arab general
Uqba ibn Nafi; it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb and represents an architectural testimony of the
Arab conquest of North Africa. in
Damascus, built in 715, is one of the oldest, largest and best preserved mosques in the world. In 661, the Rashidun Caliphate shifted into the hands of the
Umayyads, who established their capital in
Damascus. The Umayyads derived most of their military from Arabs of Syria, and heavily sponsored poetry. They established garrison towns at
Ramla,
Raqqa,
Basra,
Kufa,
Mosul and
Samarra, all of which developed into major cities.
Caliph Abd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686. This reform greatly influenced the conquered non-Arab peoples and fueled the
Arabization of the region. However, the Arabs' higher status among non-Arab Muslim converts and the latter's obligation to pay heavy taxes caused resentment. Caliph
Umar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717. He rectified the disparity, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect, as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the
Abbasids came to power and moved the capital to
Baghdad. in
Jerusalem, constructed during the reign of
Abd Al-Malik. Umayyads expanded their Empire westwards capturing North Africa from the Byzantines. Before the Arab conquest, North Africa was conquered or settled by various people including
Berbers,
Punics,
Vandals and Romans. After the
Abbasid Revolution, the Umayyads lost most of their territories with the exception of Iberia. Their last holding became known as the
Emirate of Córdoba. It was the rule of the grandson of the founder of this new emirate that the state entered a new phase as the
Caliphate of Córdoba. This new state was characterized by an expansion of trade, culture and knowledge, and saw the construction of masterpieces of
al-Andalus architecture and the library of
Al-Ḥakam II which housed over 400,000 volumes. With the collapse of the Umayyad state in 1031 AD,
Islamic Spain was divided into small kingdoms.
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 & 1261–1517) in
Baghdad. , was founded as a mosque by
Fatima al-Fihri in 857–859 in
Fez. The Abbasids were the descendants of
Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same
Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids led a revolt against the Umayyads and defeated them in the
Battle of the Zab effectively ending their rule in all parts of the Empire with the exception of
al-Andalus. In 762, the second Abbasid Caliph
al-Mansur founded the city of
Baghdad and declared it the capital of the Caliphate. Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids had the support of non-Arab subjects. receiving a delegation sent by
Charlemagne. The Abbasids ruled for 200 years before they lost their central control when
Wilayas began to fracture in the 10th century; afterwards, in the 1190s, there was a revival of their power, which was ended by the
Mongols, who
conquered Baghdad in 1258 and killed the Caliph
Al-Musta'sim. Members of the Abbasid royal family escaped the massacre and resorted to Cairo, which had broken from the Abbasid rule two years earlier; the
Mamluk generals taking the political side of the kingdom while Abbasid Caliphs were engaged in civil activities and continued patronizing science, arts and literature.
Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171) , commissioned by the Fatimid Caliph
Al-Mu'izz for the newly established capital city of
Cairo in 969. The Fatimid caliphate was founded by
al-Mahdi Billah, a descendant of
Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, in the early 10th century. Egypt was the political, cultural, and religious centre of the Fatimid empire. The Fatimid state took shape among the
Kutama Berbers, in the West of the North African littoral, in Algeria, in 909 conquering
Raqqada, the
Aghlabid capital. In 921 the Fatimids established the Tunisian city of
Mahdia as their new capital. In 948 they shifted their capital to
Al-Mansuriya, near
Kairouan in Tunisia, and in 969 they conquered Egypt and established
Cairo as the capital of their caliphate. Intellectual life in Egypt during the Fatimid period achieved great progress and activity, due to many scholars who lived in or came to Egypt, as well as the number of books available. Fatimid Caliphs gave prominent positions to scholars in their courts, encouraged students, and established libraries in their palaces, so that scholars might expand their knowledge and reap benefits from the work of their predecessors. The Fatimids were also known for their exquisite arts. Many traces of
Fatimid architecture exist in Cairo today; the most defining examples include the
Al-Hakim Mosque and the
Al-Azhar University. , 11th–12th century, Egypt It was not until the 11th century that the
Maghreb saw a large influx of ethnic Arabs. Starting with the 11th century, the Arab bedouin
Banu Hilal tribes migrated to the West. Having been sent by the
Fatimids to punish the Berber
Zirids for abandoning
Shias, they travelled westwards. The Banu Hilal quickly defeated the Zirids and deeply weakened the neighboring
Hammadids. According to some modern historians, their influx was a major factor in the arabization of the Maghreb. Although Berbers ruled the region until the 16th century (under such powerful dynasties as the
Almoravids, the
Almohads,
Hafsids, etc.).
Under the (1517-1923) in the
Arabian Desert carrying the
Flag of the Arab Revolt. From 1517 to 1918, much of the Arab world was under the suzerainty of the Turkish
Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans defeated the
Mamluk Sultanate in Cairo, and ended the Abbasid Caliphate. Arabs did not feel the change of administration because the Ottomans modeled their rule after the previous Arab administration systems. In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed
al-Fatat ("the Young Arab Society"), a small Arab nationalist club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations." In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the
Arab Congress of 1913 in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces. After
World War I, when the
Ottoman Empire was overthrown by the
British Empire, former Ottoman colonies were divided up between the
British and
French as
League of Nations mandates. ==Modern period==