Agriculture was a common crop during the Gusuku period. As the
Shellmidden Period transitioned into the Gusuku,
subsistence agriculture emerged. Agriculture likely took root in the Amami Islands in the 8th century, before spreading to the Okinawa Islands 100–200 years later.
Rice and
millet agriculture spread to Sakishima by the 12th century. Cereal crops such as rice,
barley,
wheat, and foxtail millet have been found in Gusuku Period sites, alongside possibly
beans. Sites in Southern Okinawa mainly grew millet and barley, while rice predominated in northern Okinawa and Amami. This rice was initially
japonica rice, but tropical varieties were likely introduced later via trade with China and
Southeast Asia. Initially in low-lying
alluvial regions, farms gradually shifted to higher slopes. Wheat and barley were mainly grown through
dryfield cultivation, with irrigation limited to the
rice paddies.
Cattle were used to cultivate both varieties of field. Archaeological examinations of Gusuku Period sites on
Miyako Island have revealed similar crops to Okinawa and Amami. Foxtail millet composes the vast majority of finds at Miyako, alongside smaller amounts of
Adzuki beans and
broomcorn millet. The centrality of agriculture to Gusuku Period society is a topic of academic contention. Historians and archaeologists have generally analyzed the Gusuku as a stratified agrarian society, attributing the formation of states and nobility to this agricultural base. Others have disputed this, suggesting that local agriculture was unlikely to produce a significant surplus, and instead attributing these developments to maritime trade.
Architecture , Okinawa Shellmidden-era construction was largely limited to
pit-houses. The larger settlements of the Gusuku saw the flourishing of
vernacular architecture. Settlements during the 11th to 13th centuries typically comprised several elevated main houses raised on posts with diameters of or more. Pillars within the house were typically spaced by a bay ('
) of roughly , significantly smaller than the ' spacings used in traditional Japanese architecture. Houses contained
hearths, with the largest having two. Elevated storehouses (called '''') were located from the main structures, generally to the southwest to maximize sunlight. Some of these village sites include the remains of
metalworking facilities, including pits for the storage of
ironsand and hearths equipped with clay
tuyeres.
Gusuku castles In the 13th century, villages were often built in defensive positions surrounded by
palisades. By the later portion of the century, some settlements were partially encircled by
stone walls. These early fortifications enclosed residential areas of both commoners and elites, as well as some ''
shrines, with satellite villages outside their walls. During the 14th and 15th centuries, these fortifications evolved into the gusuku|
. The largest were massive stone fortresses enclosing elite residences, shrines, and work areas oriented around a central plaza. By the 15th century, there were approximately 100 '' on Okinawa, with some estimates putting the total around 200. Stone-walled '
, found on the islands of Okinawa, Yoron, and Okinoerabu were likely inspired by Korean mountain fortresses. Many were built with coral limestone, although earthen construction is also attested in southern Okinawa. In the north of the island, where coral limestone was not available, ditches were dug across ridges for fortification. Many of the larger ' were likely built by slaves taken during pirate raids. They used Japanese and Korean-style roofing tiles, probably built by foreign tilesmiths who settled in the islands. While many '
were permanent installations, some were occupied only during emergencies. They dramatically vary in size. Smaller ' measuring less than feature a single enclosure, while the much larger structures ranging from have multiple. Even larger '
exceeding were built after the end of the Gusuku Period. Large amounts of military equipment, such as fragments of swords, armor, helmets, and arrowheads, have been recovered from ' sites. Firearms, in the form of Chinese
hand cannons, were introduced to the islands during the fifteenth century. Some '''' show damage from hand cannon fire. '
on Amami were built atop hills and mountains. They featured smaller enclosures and large ditches. They were built on "virtually every ridge and headland", protecting rivers and bays, often in direct line-of-sight of one another. Smaller enclosed fortifications were constructed in Sakishima, although some examples of stone-walled ' have been found.
Society and governance A class of local nobility, the
, began to emerge during the early Gusuku period. Local '
initially constructed small ' as a show of political power. As particular '
consolidated holdings and absorbed the territories of neighboring lords, the fortifications steadily grew in size and complexity. The most powerful nobles were referred to as ' ("leader of lords"). They commanded local armies, and held control over less powerful lords within their territories. Larger polities shared power between the ruler and various councilors. The strongholds of powerful rulers on Okinawa were named '
("root country"). Centered on ', these usually had access to great wealth and resources, were able to field armies, and ruled over or pacified a wide area. The most powerful '''' centers on Okinawa were
Katsuren,
Nakagusuku,
Sashiki,
Hanagusuku,
Urasoe, and
Itokazu. In Sakishima, the island of Miyako was the preeminent base of political power.
Trade and foreign relations Qingbai ware was imported during the Gusuku Period. Trade links between Kyushu and the central Ryukyus date to the Shellmidden Period, with shells as the primary export in exchange for Japanese pottery. The transition into the Gusuku Period saw trade expansion and the import of both Chinese ceramics and Japanese
soapstone cauldrons from Kyushu, which were used in the Ryukyus alongside the locally-produced
earthenware. The Gusuku people also imported iron knives and '''' beads from Japan. By the late 12th century, they began importing ceramics (such as
Qingbai ware and
celadon) directly from China, including forms of pottery not found in the main Japanese islands. By the 13th century, pottery imports shifted to Chinese
Longquan celadon, with smaller amounts of Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese ceramics. In addition to the Japanese and Korean traders at Kikai, traders from the Song Empire became active in the Ryukyu Islands during the early Gusuku period. During the late 14th century, tribute missions were sent by Okinawan lords to
Ming China and
Joseon Korea. Formal
tribute relations with the Ming Empire commenced in 1372, with Okinawan lords sending regular emissaries with tribute goods to the imperial court (alongside token recognition of Ming suzerainty) every three years, in exchange for trade rights with the Chinese. The establishment of formal tribute status resulted in a much greater volume of trade between the Ryukyus and China. During the rule of
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1368–1394) the
Ashikaga shogunate (the
military government of Japan) established the '''' office to manage trade with Ryukyuan merchants. The Ryukyus also had intermittent trade connections with Southeast Asia. While merchants from Miyako and other islands in Sakishima sailed directly to Southeast Asia, rulers in Okinawa hired Chinese ships and crews to travel to the region.
Piracy The Ryukyus were major bases for pirates, known regionally as the '''', from the late 13th century to the end of the Gusuku Period. Many pirates were aligned with the Japanese
Southern Court during the civil war against the
Northern Court during the
Nanboku-chō Period (1336–1392). These pirates had major bases on Kyushu and
Tsushima. Following the collapse of the Southern Court in the 1380s and 1390s, pirates from Kyushu migrated to the Ryukyus, outside of the reach of the victorious Ashikaga shogunate.
Naha (on Okinawa) served as the primary port of the Ryukyus and became a major center of piracy and
slave trading during the 15th century. == Emergence of the Ryukyu Kingdom ==