Mesopotamia had been on the margin of developments in the Neolithic and the origins of agriculture and pastoralism took place in
Mount Taurus, the
Levant, and the
Zagros, but it clearly participated in the second phase of major changes which took place in the Near East over the course of the 4th millennium BC, which are referred to as the 'second agricultural revolution' or the 'revolution of secondary products' in the case of pastoralism. These changes were characterised by the expansion of cereal cultivation following the invention of the
plough and irrigation; the expansion of pastoralism, especially the raising of sheep for wool, but also beasts of burden such as cattle and donkeys, and dairy animals; and cultivation of fruit trees, such as date palms, olives, grapes, etc. They were accompanied by the establishment of the first states, the first cities, and these institutions possessed vast fields of cereals and great herds of sheep. From this time forward, the Mesopotamians possessed a great variety of agricultural products and also a significant quantity of domestic animals. This ensemble continued to be augmented over the millennia by imports from outside Mesopotamia and by local innovations (improvement to tools with the rise of metallurgy, new breeds of plant and animal, etc.). Throughout antiquity, agricultural produce centres on some basic elements, notably barley and sheep (along with date palms in the south). But gardens enabled the diversification of food sources, thanks especially to legumes. It must be remembered that ancillary activities like hunting, fishing, the exploitation of marshes and woods, were necessary complements to agriculture. Textual sources include significant evidence for the rhythms of farming and herding, but the vocabulary is often obscure and quantification is difficult. The study of archaeological evidence to identify the remains of plants and
pollen (
archaeobotany and
palynology) and animals (
archaeozoology) consumed at ancient sites is also necessary. Much is still unknown, but recent studies, particularly those published in the eight volumes of the
Bulletin of Sumerian Agriculture, have considerably advanced our knowledge.
Cereals near the Euphrates in the northwest of modern Iraq. Mesopotamia is a great cereal producer. Most important were
barley (Sumerian ŠE/ Akkadian ''še'u(m)
), because it was the best adapted to the dry, saline soil and to the hot temperatures of the region, while its short growing cycle meant it could reach maturity even in particularly hot, dry years. It was the main food of the population and was often used as a medium of exchange. Emmer wheat (ZIZ/zizzu(m)
) was also cultivated, but in smaller quantities, as well as spelt (GIG/kibtu(m)
). In the 1st millennium BC, rice (kurangu'') was introduced, but was not very widely cultivated.
Barley A Sumerian text known as the ''Farmer's Almanac
(or Instructions of the Farmer'') informs us about the techniques employed to cultivate barley in southern Mesopotamia. This information can be supplemented with that available in the agricultural management texts. The agricultural year is defined by several periods of intense work and other necessary maintenance of the fields: • Firstly, towards the end of summer (August–September), the field must be irrigated in order to loosen up the desiccated soil after the summer heat. Then, at the beginning of autumn, work begins on the preparation of the soil. The
plough employed is the
ard (APIN/
epinnu(m)), drawn by four oxen, arrayed two-by-two. The ard reaches only 15–20 cm into the earth, but this is sufficient in the thin soil of southern Mesopotamia. If necessary, however, the work could be completed with a
hoe (AL/
allu(m)) and a
spade (MAR/
marru(m)). • Sowing then took place in the autumn (largely in October–November). A prior estimate of the quantity of grain that ought to be sown was carried out in order to ensure optimal production. The seeds and beasts of burden were prepared, and teams of labourers were formed. The ploughs were equipped with a seeder - a kind of funnel designed to leave the seed buried behind the plough as it turned the soil. The grain was planted at regular intervals of around 60–75 cm. • At the end of autumn and during the winter, the field needed to be weeded and irrigated repeatedly. Apparently, no other techniques for improving the soil were undertaken at this time. The animals were removed from the seeded fields in order to avoid damaging them. • In spring (April–May), the
harvest began, just before the river level began to rise, or at the same time. This was a period of intense labour. The ears of wheat were cut with ceramic, stone, and metal
sickles. The ears of wheat were collected in
threshing areas where the grain was separated from the
chaff using a
threshing board (a wooden board pulled by oxen of donkeys, with flints attached, which separates the grain from the stems and cut up the straw), then
winnowed. It is at this moment that the harvest is distributed between the different actors, in order to settle debts and pay rents. Then the grain is placed in storage, in June–July at the latest. Cultural practices served to protect the productivity of the fields, especially from the danger of salinisation in the south. Biennial
ley farming was generally practiced and sometimes fields were left fallow for longer periods of time. The soil was also washed regularly in order to expel the salt.
Crop rotation may also have been practiced.
Other field crops In addition to the cereals, other crops were cultivated in the irrigated fields, but played a less central role. They were sometimes referred to as 'minor' crops (
ṣihhirtu(m)) in the
Old Babylonian period. They include many plants: •
Flax (GADA/
kitū(m)) was apparently not much cultivated in Mesopotamia before the 1st millennium BC, although it had been well-known since the Neolithic. It was mainly used for producing
linen textiles, but its grains could also be eaten or used for the production of
linseed oil. •
Sesame (ŠE.GIŠ.Ì/
šamaššammū(m)) was the most important crop grown in the fields after cereals. It was introduced to Mesopotamia around the end of the 3rd millennium BC, from
India. It required irrigation to grow. The seeds were planted in spring and the harvest took place at the end of the summer. It was used to produce
sesame oil, which was used for food, hygiene, and as fuel for lamps. The seeds could also be eaten. • Various legumes, such as
chick peas (
hallūru(m)),
vetch (
kiššanu(m)), and other kinds of
pea,
lentil, and
beans were an important supplement to the cereals. •
Onions were also grown in the fields.
Garden and orchard crops In the
gardens/
orchards (GIŠ.KIRI6/
kirū(m)), which were sometimes incorporated into the palmeries, there were various
vegetables. which do not seem to have been focussed on a specific type of cultivar. The most commonly attested are green leaves,
cucumbers,
leeks,
garlic, onion,
legumes (
lentils,
chickpeas,
beans), and various kinds of herbs. There were also fruit trees, especially
pomegranates,
figs, and
apples, but also
quinces and
pears. The gardens of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian kings included a very great variety of crops, which are enumerated in texts that glory in these kings ability to bring together plants from throughout their domains. In particular, they made efforts to acclimatise the
olive and
cotton.
Vines Grape vines grow mainly in the north of Mesopotamia and were not widespread in the south, where the climate is not favourable for them. Several Sumerian texts indicate that they were found in orchards, but only at their edges. On the other hand, vines were common in Upper Mesopotamia. In the 18th century BC, there was a cite south of Djebel Sindjar named Karanâ, which literally means "wine" (
karānu(m) in
Akkadian; GEŠTIN), indicating that there were many vines growing on the slopes of the hill. Documentation on wine is especially rich for the
Neo-Assyrian period, when the kingdom's high dignitaries possessed substantial
wineries, as attested by a
cadastral document relating to territory near
Harran. In the same period, distributions of wine were a common feature of life at the royal court. Grapes could be consumed as food or converted into wine. The process of winemaking is not attested in Mesopotamian texts. Wine is attested, but was drunk less often than
beer, which remained the chief
alcoholic drink of Mesopotamia. Instead, wine was a luxury product, with the best vintages produced in the mountainous regions bordering Mesopotamia (
Syria, eastern
Anatolia, the
Zagros Mountains), and imported by the Mesopotamian royal courts, which seems to indicated that the wine produced in Mesopotamia itself was of comparatively low quality.
Animal husbandry Sheep , 9th century BC, showing a man slaughtering a sheep
Sheep (UDU/
immeru(m)) were by far the most common farm animal in Mesopotamia and numerous types are attested in textual sources. They were well adapted to the small areas of pasture in the region, notably the areas of steppe, as a result of their ability to survive off very little nourishment. Small-scale farmers kept sheep, but the largest and best known flocks are those that were owned by institutions, which could consist of hundred or thousands of animals. Several different practices are attested. Often, they were placed on uncultivated land at the edge of the inhabited area in order to graze. At other times, they were fattened up in stables (especially sheep that were to be sacrificed to the gods), and
transhumance was practiced with the stock of temples in southern Mesopotamia, who sent their herds out to the better pastures in central and northern Mesopotamia. Care of sheep was generally entrusted to specialists, who watched over the herds and were responsible for any lost animals. The animals were raised primarily for their
wool, which was an essential material for Mesopotamian workshops, but also for their meat and milk.
Cattle inlaid with silver,
Early Dynastic Period III,
Louvre.
Cattle (GU4,
alpu(m) ) were more difficult to raise than sheep, but also more valuable. They were an essential part of Mesopotamian agriculture, notably because of their role as beasts of burden. Their importance is shown by the fact that they are the only domestic animals that were sometimes given names by their owners. Several texts relating to institutional estates inform us of the care taken of them.
Weaned calves were fed on fodder composed of grain and reeds, and could be used to pull
ploughs once they reached three years of age. Unlike smaller animals, working cattle could not survive off the meagre Mesopotamian pasture land and thus they had to receive rations, like humans, and thus were more expensive to maintain. Some cattle were raised for their meat and cows were valued for their milk.
Other domestic animals Goats (ÙZ,
enzu(o)) were often raised along with sheep and were often found on smallholdings. They required less water than sheep, survived better in arid environments, but they were clearly not farmed on the same scale, because their skins were not as important to the Mesopotamian economy as sheep's wool and their meat also seems to have been less valued. They were also milked. Among the four major domestic animals of the Near East,
pigs (ŠAH,
šahū(m)) had a special place, since they were raised for their meat and fat but lacked any other economic role. They nevertheless seem to have been very widespread, being raised in small groups without much expense, at least until the 1st millennium BC, when they are mentioned in administrative texts less and less. In
Neo-Babylonian times they are no longer present, and this disappearance is accompanied by the development of a negative picture of the animal in literary texts.
Equids were domesticated late in Mesopotamian history, with the
donkey (ANŠE/
imēru(o) ) only appearing clearly in the 4th millennium BC and the
horse (ANŠE.KUR.RA/
sīsu(m)) arriving from elsewhere around the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. They were joined by the
onager which could be tamed, and the
mule. The donkey rapidly came to play an essential role as a beast of burden, allowing the development of a system of caravans for long-distance transportation. The horse rapidly became a highly valued animal among the elites, especially warriors. The training of horses was the focus of a great deal of attention. The large areas of pasture in Mesopotamia are located in the north, but pale beside the areas available outside Mesopotamia in western
Iran and the
Caucasus. Starting around 2000 BC and especially in the 1st millennium BC, the
dromedary and the
camel (ANŠE.A.AB.BA/
ibilu) were introduced and came to play an important role as beasts of burden and transport. Their meat and milk was also consumed. Other domestic animals included the
dog (UR.GI7,
kalbu(m)), and those used by rulers for
hunting were the object of special attention. Farmyard birds attested from the beginning of Mesopotamian history include
geese,
ducks, and
pigeons.
Chickens were introduced from
India late in the period, around the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Poultry were mainly raised for their meat and their eggs. Finally,
apiculture was developed in Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Before this,
honey and
beeswax were collected from wild hives.
Related activities in the south of modern Iraq.
Hunting and fishing Human exploitation of the Mesopotamian environment also involved some activities which do not fall into the classes of agriculture or animal husbandry, but which are related to them.
Hunting and
fishing were important, primarily as a source of food, but by the historical period they played a secondary role compared to animal husbandry. There were specialist hunters and fishers employed by major institutions, but regular people also engaged in both activities. There were many wild animals that could be killed or captured: gazelles, goats, cattle, boar, foxes, hares, various birds, and even insects, as well as a large variety of fish which could be caught in the swamps, rivers, canals, and at sea in the
Persian Gulf.
Reeds and timber The numerous swamps in the south part of Mesopotamia supplied various kinds of
reed (especially
Phragmites australis) in great quantity. Reeds were collected for various purposes, notably the construction of buildings (huts, palisades, reinforcing chains in mud-brick walls, etc.), boats,
baskets, and the
reed pens used for inscribing
cuneiform into clay tablets. is a traditional
reed house built for at least 5,000 years, south of Iraq. Ancient Mesopotamia also had an appreciable supply of timber, which has since largely disappeared as a result of over-exploitation. Most prominent were the date-palms, but there were also
poplars,
tamarisks,
willows,
junipers, and others, which were used for their wood as well as their fruit, wherever possible. This local timber was mainly used in small-scale construction; the great palaces and temples, as well as luxury wooden items, required quality timber imported from further afield (
cedar of Lebanon,
ebony,
cypress, etc.). These foreign trees could also be planted in Mesopotamia (
arboriculture), with stands of foreign timber attested in the south from the end of the 3rd millennium BC. Teams of lumberjacks were sent to tend to and harvest the forests of major institutions at the beginning of spring and autumn. == Economic organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry ==