Although there are numerous
Jewish ethnic communities, several of them are large enough to be considered predominant. Generally, they do not constitute separate religious branches within Judaism, instead, they constitute separate
cultural traditions (
nuschaot) and rites of prayer (
minhagim).
Ashkenazi Jews compose about 75% of the world's Jewish population.
Sephardi Jews and
Mizrahi Jews compose the greatest part of the rest, with about 20% of the world's Jewish population. Israel has two
Chief Rabbi—one for the Ashkenazic, another for the Sephardic with Mizrahi Jews. The remaining 5% of Jews are divided among a wide array of small groups (such as various groups of
African Jews, most prominently the
Beta Israel from Ethiopia who follow the
Haymanot branch of Judaism), some of which are nearing extinction as a result of
assimilation and
intermarriage into surrounding non-Jewish cultures or surrounding Jewish cultures. Additionally, special ethnoreligious divisions are also the
Italian rite Jews and the Greek
Romaniote Jews. Both groups are considered distinct from Ashkenazim and Sephardim. The
Enlightenment had a tremendous effect on
Jewish identity as well as ideas about the importance and role of Jewish observance. Due to the geographical distribution and the geopolitical entities affected by the Enlightenment, this
philosophical revolution essentially affected only the Ashkenazi community; however, because of the predominance of the Ashkenazi community in
Israeli politics and in
Jewish leadership worldwide, the effects have been significant for all Jews.
Sephardic and Mizrahi Judaism Sephardic Judaism is the practice of Judaism as observed by the
Sephardim (Iberian,
Spanish-Portuguese Jews). The
Mizrahi Jews (including
Maghrebi) are all Oriental Jewry. Some definitions of "Sephardic" also include Mizrahi, many of whom follow the same traditions of worship but have different ethno-cultural traditions. So far as it is peculiar to themselves and not shared with other Jewish groups such as the Ashkenazim (German rite). Sephardim are primarily the descendants of Jews from the
Iberian Peninsula, such as most
Jews from France and
the Netherlands. They may be divided into the families that left in the
Expulsion of 1492 and those that remained as
crypto-Jews,
Marranos and those who left in the following few centuries. In religious parlance, and by many in modern Israel, the term is used in a broader sense to include all Jews of
Ottoman or other Asian or African backgrounds (Mizrahi Jews), whether or not they have any historic link to Spain, although some prefer to distinguish between Sephardim proper and Mizraḥi Jews. Sephardic and Mizrachi Jewish synagogues are generally considered Orthodox or
Sephardic Haredim by non-Sephardic Jews, and are primarily run according to the Orthodox tradition, even though many of the congregants may not keep a level of observance on par with traditional Orthodox belief. For example, many congregants will drive to the synagogue on the
Shabbat, in violation of
halakha, while discreetly entering the synagogue so as not to offend more observant congregants. However, not all Sephardim are Orthodox; among the pioneers of the
Reform Judaism movement in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregation
Beth Elohim in
Charleston, South Carolina. A part of the European Sephardim were also linked with the Judaic modernization. Unlike the predominantly Ashkenazic Reform, and Reconstructionist denominations, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews who are not observant generally believe that Orthodox Judaism's interpretation and legislation of
halakha is appropriate, and true to the original philosophy of Judaism. That being said, Sephardic and Mizrachi rabbis tend to hold different, and generally more lenient, positions on
halakha than their Ashkenazi counterparts, but since these positions are based on rulings of Talmudic scholars as well as well-documented traditions that can be linked back to well-known codifiers of Jewish law, Ashkenazic and Hasidic Rabbis do not believe that these positions are incorrect, but rather that they are the appropriate interpretation of
halakha for Jews of Sephardic and Mizrachi descent. The
Shas, a religious political party in Israel, represents the interests of the Orthodox/Haredi Sephardim and Mizrahim.
Italian and Romaniote Judaism () A relatively small but influential ethnoreligious group in the intellectual circles of Israel are
Italian rite Jews () who are neither Ashkenazi nor Sephardi. These are exclusively descendants of the ancient Roman Jewish community, not including later Ashkenazic and Sephardic migrants to Italy. They practice traditional Orthodox Judaism. The liturgy is served according to a special
Italian Nusach (, a.k.a. ) and it has similarities with the nusach of the Greek
Romaniote Jews. The Romaniote Jews or the Romaniotes () native to the
Eastern Mediterranean is the oldest Jewish community in Europe, whom name is refers to the
Eastern Roman Empire. They are also distinct from the Ashkenazim and Sephardim. But, nowadays, few synagogues still use the
Romaniote nusach and minhag.
Ashkenazic movements Hasidic Judaism Hasidic Judaism—a revivalist movement—was founded by
Israel ben Eliezer (1700–1760), also known as the
Baal Shem Tov, whose followers had previously called themselves
Freylechn ("happy ones") and now they call themselves ("pious, holy ones"). His charismatic disciples attracted many followers among Ashkenazi Jews, and they also established numerous Hasidic groups across Europe. The Baal Shem Tov came at a time when the Jewish masses of Eastern Europe were reeling from the bewilderment and disappointment which were engendered in them by the two notorious Jewish
false messiahs,
Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) and
Jacob Frank (1726–1791), and their respective
followers. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. The Hasidim are organized into independent "courts" or
dynasties, each dynasty is headed by its own hereditary spiritual leader-
rebbe. Unlike other Ashkenazim, most Hasidim use some variation of
Nusach Sefard, a blend of Ashkenazi and Sephardi liturgies, based on the innovations of the
Kabbalist Isaac Luria.
Neo-Hasidism is a term which refers to trends of interest in the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism which are expressed by members of other existing Jewish movements.
Lithuanian (''Lita'im'') In the late 18th century, there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European traditionalist Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed ("opponents") by the followers of the Baal Shem Tov.
Lithuania became the centre of this opposition under the leadership of
Vilna Gaon (Elijah ben Solomon Zalman), which adopted the epithets
Litvishe (Yiddish word),
Litvaks (in Slavic) or (in Hebrew) those epithets refer to
Haredi Jews who are not Hasidim (and not
Hardalim or
Sephardic Haredim). Since then, all of the Hasidic Jewish groups have been theologically subsumed into mainstream Orthodox Judaism, particularly,
Haredi Judaism, but cultural differences persist. In the 19th century, the Lithuanian spirituality was mainly incorporated into the
Musar movement.
Post-Enlightenment movements Late-18th-century Europe, and then the rest of the world, was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements that taken together were referred to as the Enlightenment. These movements promoted scientific thinking, free thought, and allowed people to question previously unshaken religious dogmas. The
emancipation of the Jews in many European communities, and the
Haskalah movement started by
Moses Mendelssohn, brought the Enlightenment to the Jewish community. In response to the challenges of integrating Jewish life with Enlightenment values, German Jews in the early 19th century began to develop the concept of
Reform Judaism, adapting Jewish practice to the new conditions of an increasingly urbanized and secular community. Staunch opponents of the Reform movement became known as
Orthodox Jews. Later, members of the Reform movement who felt that it was moving away from tradition too quickly formed the
Conservative movement. At the same time, the notion "traditional Judaism" includes the Orthodox with Conservative to
Modern Orthodox Judaism (with
Neo-Orthodoxy,
Open Orthodoxy, and
Religious Zionism). Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah became known as Haredi Jews (), including , , (), and . Orthodox Jews who were sympathetic to the Haskalah formed what became known as modern/neo-Orthodox Jews. The German rabbi
Azriel Hildesheimer is regarded as a Modern Orthodoxy founder, while the father of neo-Orthodoxy was German rabbi
Samson Raphael Hirsch, who proclaimed the principle
Torah im Derech Eretz— the strict observance of the Jewish Law in an active social life. In 1851, he become the rabbi of the first Orthodox group that separated from the Reform community of
Frankfurt am Main. In addition, the
"Centrist" Orthodoxy was represented by American rabbi
Joseph B. Soloveitchik affiliated with the
Orthodox Union. In Israel, Orthodox Judaism occupies a privileged position: solely an Orthodox rabbi may become the
Chief rabbi and
Chief military rabbi; and only Orthodox synagogues have the right to conduct Jewish
marriages. In the United States, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the Reform movement became the largest, ahead of Conservative Judaism. In contrast, Reform in Israel is relatively smaller.
Communal Judaism (Ḥevrati) Communal Judaism, also referred to as יהדות חברתי (
Yahadut Ḥevrati) in Hebrew, is a denomination that intertwines the ethnoreligious identity and indigenous tradition within the broader Jewish community. Unlike other movements which may emphasize theological nuances, Communal Judaism places a substantial focus on the social and communal aspects of Jewish life, alongside personal spiritual practices. Practitioners are diverse, found globally with significant numbers in Israel and the United States, extending to European and Middle Eastern countries. This spread is reflective of the movement's inclusive approach to Jewish identity, welcoming those who align with its core values of maintaining communal traditions and customs without the stringent adherence to rabbinical interpretations that some other denominations might require. In terms of religious observance, adherents commonly engage in the lighting of Shabbat candles, recitation of Kiddush, and the enjoyment of communal meals replete with traditional
zemirot. This practice is designed to foster a sense of community and spiritual reflection, particularly on Shabbat where the use of technology is often set aside to maintain a contemplative state. Dietary laws within Communal Judaism adhere to
kashrut, the set of Jewish dietary laws, with a focus on traditional observance. This includes abstaining from pork and shellfish and not mixing meat with dairy products, as outlined in the Torah. The connection to the
Land of Israel stands as a central tenet of Communal Judaism, emphasizing a deep ethnic heritage and historical relationship with the land. This connection is celebrated and remembered through the observance of holidays and commemorations that reflect on the Jewish people's historical experiences of dispersal and return. Spiritually, Communal Judaism advocates for the integration of tradition into daily life, upholding a heart-centered approach to religious practice. While individual prayer is encouraged, the emphasis is placed on communal worship and support, reflecting the movement's overarching commitment to a life lived in close connection with one's community and heritage.
Zionists (Datim-leumi) and anti-Zionists prays with tefillin The issue of
Zionism was once very divisive in the Jewish community.
Religious Zionism, a.k.a. "Nationalist Orthodoxy" () combines Zionism and Orthodox Judaism, based on the teachings of rabbis
Zvi Hirsch Kalischer and
Abraham Isaac Kook. The name or ("Nationalist Haredim") refers to the Haredi-oriented variety of Religious Zionism. Another mode is
Reform Zionism as Zionist arm of Reform Judaism. Among most religious non-Zionists, such as
Chabad, there is a de facto recognition of Israel, but only as a secular non-religious state. protest, USA A few of the fringe groups of the anti-Zionists, with marginal ideology, does not recognize the legitimacy of the Israeli state. Among them are both the Orthodox (the
Satmar Hasidism,
Edah HaChareidis,
Neturei Karta) and Reform (
American Council for Judaism). Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis have been most accepting of intermarried couples, with some rabbis willing to officiate in mixed religious ceremonies, although most insist that children in such families be raised strictly Jewish. Conservative rabbis are not permitted to officiate in such marriages, but are supportive of couples when the non-Jewish partner wishes to convert to Judaism and raise children as Jewish.
Crypto-Judaism Crypto-Judaism is the secret adherence to Judaism by people who publicly profess another faith; practitioners of Crypto-Judaism are referred to as "crypto-Jews" (origin from Greek kryptos – κρυπτός, 'hidden'). Nowadays, in whole, Crypto-Judaism movements are a historical phenomenon. In the United States,
Reform rabbi Jacques Cukierkorn is one of the leaders of the outreach to the descendants of those Crypto-Jews who wish to renew their ties with the Jewish people. The subgroups of Crypto-Jews are as follows: •
Anusim •
Sephardic Bnei Anusim •
Converso •
Marrano •
Xueta •
Beta Abraham •
Chala (Jews) •
Sabbateanism •
Frankism •
Dönmeh •
Kaifeng Jews •
Mashhadi Jews •
Neofiti Other ethnic movements Beta Israel (Haymanot) , Jerusalem The
Beta Israel (House of Israel), also known as Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish community that developed in
Ethiopia and
lived there for centuries. Most of the Beta Israel
emigrated to Israel in the late 20th century. They practiced
Haymanot, a religion which is generally recognized as a non-Rabbinic form of Judaism (in Israel, they practice a mixture of Haymanot and Rabbinic Judaism). To the Beta Israel, the holiest book is the
Orit (a word which means the "law"), and it consists of the
Torah and the Books of
Joshua,
Judges and
Ruth. Until the middle of the 20th century, the Beta Israel of Ethiopia were the only modern Jewish group which practiced a monastic tradition which the monks adhered to by living in monasteries which were separated from the Jewish villages.
Crimean Karaites interior The Crimean Karaites ( Karaims) are an ethnicity which is derived from
Turkic Karaim-speaking adherents of
Karaite Judaism in Eastern Europe, especially in
Crimea. They were probably Jewish by origin, but due to political pressure and other reasons, many of them began to claim that they were
Turks, descendants of the
Khazars. During the era when Crimea was a part of the
Russian Empire, the Crimean Karaite leaders persuaded the Russian rulers to exempt Karaites from the anti-Semitic regulations which were imposed upon Jews. These Karaites were recognized as non-Jews during the
Nazi occupation. Some of them even served in the
SS. The ideology of de-Judaization and the revival of
Tengrism were imbued with the works of the contemporary leaders of the Karaites in Crimea. While the members of several Karaite congregations were registered as Turks, some of them retained Jewish customs. In the 1990s, many Karaites emigrated to Israel, under the
Law of Return.
Subbotniks The
Subbotniks are a movement of Jews of
Russian ethnic origin which split off from other
Sabbatarian movements in the late 18th century. The majority of the Subbotniks practiced
Rabbinic and
Karaite Judaism, a minority of them practiced
Spiritual Christianity. Subbotnik families settled in the
Holy Land which was then a part of the
Ottoman Empire, in the 1880s, as part of the
Zionist First Aliyah in order to escape from
antisemitic oppression in the
Russian Empire and later, most of them married other Jews. Their descendants included
Israeli Jews such as
Alexander Zaïd, Major-General Alik Ron, and the mother of
Ariel Sharon. == 20th/21st-century movements ==