He was an outstanding poet, who wrote in Turkish and
Persian. He played significant role in the development of the
Azerbaijani poetry. His
diwan comprises 1,500
ghazals, 119
tuyughs, and a few
distichs. According to
Jan Rypka, he was "a poet of profane love; mystical notes are sounded more rarely in his work". Despite his ability, he was relatively unknown, and his work had little influence on later Azerbaijani or Ottoman poetry. According to the Turkish scholar
Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Burhan al-Din's works "have all the peculiarities of the
Azerbaijani dialect." Turkish historian and linguist states that, despite being written in Anatolia, the works by Burhan al-Din fall within the realm of the Azerbaijani language due to their linguistic peculiarities. Numerous studies have been conducted on the life, activities, personality, and state governance of Qazi Burhaneddin, as well as on the research and publication of his literary legacy. Particularly noteworthy is the work "Bazm ve Razm" by Aziz ibn Ardashir Astarabadi, who served as Burhan al-Din’s historian from 1394 onward. Valuable information about Qadi Burhan al-Din is also found in Ibn Ardashir’s Ajaib al-Maqdur, as well as in sources related to the Anatolian Seljuks, the Beyliks, the
Timurid period, and the Aq Qoyunlu, alongside accounts from Arabic and Ottoman histories. Nevertheless, medieval sources primarily focus on Burhan al-Din’s political, diplomatic, and military activities, his campaigns, the structure of his state, and his relations with other states and tribes. His poetic endeavors, however, were placed in the background. In fact, his artistic achievements were of little significance to medieval authors. This is naturally linked to the perception of Burhan al-Din as a statesman and ruler, as his works were more closely associated with history rather than literary studies. Chroniclers and historians such as Taşköprüzade in Shaqaiq al-Numaniyya, Khoja Sadeddin in Taj al-Tavarikh, and Katib Chelebi in Kashf al-Zunun discuss Burhan al-Din solely as a poet.
Research The study of Burhan al-Din as an artist and the analysis of his literary legacy mainly belong to recent periods. His introduction to Russian, European, and English-speaking audiences owes much to scholars such as P. Melioranski, A. Krymsky, H. Gibb, L. Levonian, F. Goadsell, and A. Bombaci. In 1895, P. Melioranski published an article titled "Excerpts from the Divan of Burhan al-Din of Sivas" in the journal
Vostochnyye Zametki. In this article, he translated 12 tuyuqs and 20 rubais into Russian and provided valuable insights into the poet’s life and work. The renowned British Orientalist H. Gibb introduced European readers to Qazi Burhaneddin’s life and creative work for the first time in his 1900 publication A History of Ottoman Literature. Similarly, F. Goadsell, director of a language school in
America, wrote an article about the Azerbaijani poet, analyzing his tuyuqs and highlighting the poet’s skill in this genre. Şehabeddin, in his introduction to Goadsell’s work, examined Burhan al-Din’s life, era, and creative journey, arriving at new conclusions. The study of Burhan al-Din’s literary legacy in Turkish literary scholarship began in the 20th century. Scholars such as Ş. Süleyman, M. F. Köprülü, Y. Kabaklı, N. S. Banarlı, A. Alpaslan, S. Nüzhet, and M. Ergin emphasized his unique position in the history of Turkic literature, characterizing him as a ruler-poet who wrote on worldly themes with an optimistic spirit. M. F. Köprülü, in an article published in
Dergah Mecmuası, praised Burhan al-Din for writing ghazals on secular themes rather than religious ones. In the preface to the 1924 publication Divan-i Fuzuli, Köprülü analyzed the stylistic and thematic features of Burhan al-Din’s poetry, stating: Despite the primitiveness and vibrancy of its form and language, there is a sincere and vivid uniqueness in his works. His poems reflect the transience of the world and the unity of the beloved and the lover, showing some influence of Persian mystics. At the same time, his verses contain heartfelt national concepts derived from everyday life, and beneath these crude lines lies the spirit of a courageous warrior. According to Köprülü, the emotions and thoughts of ordinary people are vividly expressed in Burhan al-Din’s
ghazals. In the preface to his 1926 book "Turkish Poetry from Its Origins to the Tenth Hijri Century", Köprülü described Burhan al-Din as a creator of worldly and realistic poetry. The Turkish scholar Y. Yücel authored a fundamental work titled "Qazi Burhaneddin Ahmed and His State", focusing primarily on his socio-political and military activities as a ruler, with only passing references to his poetic endeavors. Based on historical sources, this monograph holds significant scholarly value. Turkish scholar Vasfi Mahir Kocatürk portrayed Burhan al-Din as a mentor to master poets like Nasimi and
Nava’i. He demonstrated, using literary examples, that
Nasimi wrote naziras and responses to Burhan al-Din’s poems, learning from the artistic beauty of his works. Kocatürk concluded that Nasimi’s poetic language is an evolved version of Burhan al-Din’s poetic style. Literary critic Y. Kabaklı described Burhaneddin as a “commander-poet who expressed heroism, love, and mysticism with fiery enthusiasm,” presenting his creative legacy as a new manifestation of national poetic traditions in the literature of Turkic peoples. In
Azerbaijani literature, the exploration and promotion of Burhan al-Din’s artistic heritage began with M. F. Köprülü and were later continued by I. Hikmət. Although Köprülü briefly discussed the poet in "Studies in Azerbaijani Literature", I. Hikmət authored a comprehensive essay on him, analyzing Burhan al-Din’s life, creative work, themes, and linguistic features of his poetry. The poet’s unique role in the development of the Tuyuq genre in Azerbaijani literature was especially highlighted. Burhan al-Din’s poetic works have been published in various compilations across different countries. His divan was first published in facsimile form by the Turkish Language Association in Istanbul in 1943, and in 1980, Turkish scholar M. Ergin published the complete divan. In Baku, selections from his poetry and his divan have been published multiple times, with A. Safarli as the compiler of these editions. In addition to these copies, a manuscript consisting of 19 lines and 65 leaves (the end is missing) kept in the Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, Carullah Efendi collection, has the author's name written as Hamiduddin Sivasi on the inner cover and is included in the catalog as such. When compared with the two existing copies, it was determined that this work is another writing of "Terci ut-tövzih".
Works Burhan al-Din authored works on
Islamic law and poetry, among which his most renowned piece is Tarjih al-Tawzih ("The Reiteration of Clarifications"), written in Arabic. This book, addressing the principles of jurisprudence, serves as an annotation to a larger work titled Talmih. Remarkably, the work was written without referencing any other books, relying solely on logical reasoning, and it stands out as a significant intellectual contribution authored by a ruler. One copy of this manuscript is preserved in the
Ragıp Paşa Library under catalog number 831, with notes indicating it was completed in 800 AH/1398 AD. Another copy, consisting of 169 folios with 19 lines per page, is located in the Millet Feyzullah Efendi collection under catalog number 585. Burhan al-Din also authored a Sufi treatise titled "Elixir of Happiness in the Mysteries of Worship" (İksir əs-Səadət fi Əsrar əl-İbadət), which he referred to in Arabic as "Sa'adat al-iksir fi asrar al-ibadah" ("The Elixir of Happiness in the Mysteries of Worship"). During the years 1395–1396, which he spent in Sivas, Burhan al-Din engaged in addressing state and public affairs arising from ongoing military campaigns. In his remaining time, he completed this treatise. The work has not been published. The only known Arabic manuscript is preserved at the
Ayasofya section of the Süleymaniye Library under inventory number 1658. This manuscript consists of 176 folios, each containing nine lines. The text, written in the
naskh script, is fully vowelized. Marginal and upper-page notes occasionally provide additional explanations or grammatical clarifications to aid comprehension. The first folio includes the title of the work, the author's full name—al-Imam al-'Alim al-Allama al-Hibr al-Muhaqqiq Burhan al-Din al-Hakim al-Sivasi—and invocations for blessings. Additional notes on this folio indicate that the manuscript was endowed by Ottoman Sultan Mahmud Khan and is part of the Haramayn Sharifayn endowments. Another commentary on the treatise in Ottoman Turkish is housed in the Şazeli Tekke section of the
Süleymaniye Library. The commentary, written as a manuscript, can be found between folios 53 and 94 under inventory number 52. Each page of this commentary contains 17 lines. Following the opening Bismillah, praise, and salutations, Burhan al-Din notes in the treatise's introduction that the writing of the work was inspired by the path of kashf (spiritual unveiling) followed by saints. He also emphasizes that the work adheres to the scholarly standards (ulama-i rusum) of his time. He asserts that he relied exclusively on the Qur’an and the Sunnah, distinguishing between essential truths and extraneous meanings in his discourse. The treatise comprises three introductory sections. The first discusses
wujud (existence), the second focuses on the "order of creation," and the third addresses the "wisdom of creation." After these introductions, Burhan al-Din elaborates on the seven attributes of humans and identifies seven obligatory forms of worship: faith (iman), prayer (salat), fasting (sawm), pilgrimage (hajj), almsgiving (zakat), jihad, and sacrifice (qurban). He explains the higher purposes of these acts of worship and other religious observances, such as festivals, while delving into their external wisdom. He also draws connections between these practices and the manifestations of the Asma al-Husna (Beautiful Names of Allah). Burhan al-Din's poetic Divan is preserved among
Ottoman manuscripts in the
British Museum. The only surviving copy of this work, produced during his lifetime, is adorned with miniatures. Dated to 1393, the Divan comprises over 20,000 verses and is divided into two unequal parts: the first contains 1,500 ghazals, while the second includes 20 rubaiyat and 119 tuyuqs—short mystical poems. According to Gibb, Burhan al-Din was the only poet among Western Turks to utilize the ancient poetic form tuyuq, which consists of four lines with the rhyme scheme a-a-b-a. The sole surviving copy of the Divan was brought to
London as part of the collection of Thomas Fiott Hughes, an employee of the British Embassy in
Istanbul. It is currently housed in the British Museum (Or. nr. 4126). The manuscript, copied in 796 AH (1393–94) by Khalil ibn Ahmad, one of Burhan al-Din's calligraphers, is vowelized and written in a beautiful Seljuk naskh script. The text features gilded headers and framed pages. The Divan comprises ghazals (pp. 1–581), rubaiyat (pp. 582–585), and tuyuqs (pp. 586–608), containing over 1,300 ghazals, 20 rubaiyat, and 115 tuyuqs. The Divan is not arranged in classical order; rather, the poems appear in the sequence in which they were likely composed. Burhan al-Din did not use a pen name (takhallus) in his poetry. The first scholarly study of the Divan was conducted in 1895 by Russian orientalist P. Melioranski, who translated 20 rubaiyat and 12 tuyuqs into
Russian. F. F. Godsell later published four ghazals, along with all the rubaiyat and tuyuqs, in an article titled "Qazi Burhan al-Din: His Life and Work." A facsimile edition of the Divan was published with the support of the Turkish Language Association, and a critical edition was prepared by Mehmed Ergin (Istanbul, 1980). Ali Alparslan's Selections from Qazi Burhan al-Din's Divan includes a comprehensive analysis of the poet's work, along with 100 ghazals, seven rubaiyat, and 18 tuyuqs. In 1988, Azerbaijani scholar Professor
Alyar Safarli prepared and published the Divan in
Baku. Subsequent editions included a brief biography of the poet written by Safarli. Burhan al-Din's Divan exhibits unique characteristics that set it apart from later poetry collections. Unlike subsequent divans, which arranged ghazals alphabetically by the final letter of their rhyme, Burhan al-Din's work lacks such organization. Furthermore, his ghazals do not include a pen name or signature, which was customary in later periods. The prosody and thematic structure of his poems, although written in Turkish, bear the influence of Persian lyrical poetry traditions.
Languages Sources provide varying accounts regarding the language of Burhan al-Din's works. Badr al-Din Ayni (1360–1451) states that Burhan al-Din's works were written in Arabic, Turkic, and Persian. Krymsky notes the same languages. Khadija Tören, in her article for the Encyclopedia of Islam, mentions that he wrote poems in Arabic, Persian, and Turkic. Claude Cahen offers a more distinct perspective on the matter.
Azerbaijani Turkish Version Although most sources reiterate that Burhan al-Din wrote in Persian and Arabic, Russian sources present some variation. The main issue concerns which form of Turkic Burhan al-Din used. The Concise Literary Encyclopedia and the Great Russian Encyclopedia contain contradictions about the Turkic language of his works, particularly his divan. Turkish historian
Fuad Köprülü, one of the first researchers on Burhan al-Din's works, argues that the characteristics of his divan align with Azerbaijani Turkish. Azerbaijani-origin Turkish linguist
Ahmed Caferoğlu, in the
Encyclopedia of Islam, highlights Burhan al-Din's and Nasimi's contributions to the development of Azerbaijani literature. Azerbaijani scholar Chingiz Huseynov, who wrote the article on Burhan al-Din in the Concise Literary Encyclopedia, states that Burhan al-Din wrote in Azerbaijani and Ottoman Turkish as well as Persian. Turkologist Beller-Hann posits that Burhan al-Din's works represent Middle Azerbaijani or an early stage of Iranian Turkish. Safarli, in his publication of Burhan al-Din's divan, emphasizes that the language of the works is Azerbaijani Turkish and that Burhan al-Din was a pioneer of literature in this language.
Old Anatolian Turkish with Azerbaijani Dialect In the 14th century, the Anatolian Turkish language had two dialect zones: the western zone, including Konya, Eskişehir, Kırşehir, Sivrihisar, Bolu, Kütahya, and Aydın, and the eastern zone, covering Kastamonu, Çankırı, Sinop, Erzurum, Kayseri, Erzincan, and Sivas. Over time, these zones formed the basis of Azerbaijani and Ottoman Turkish, respectively. Linguist
Maharram Ergin, who published Burhan al-Din's divan, notes that Azerbaijani and Ottoman dialects had not yet distinctly formed during this period and that several centuries were still needed for this differentiation. He also observes that Burhan al-Din's divan displays features of the
Azerbaijani dialect. Turkish historian Ertaylan, who conducted one of the first academic studies on literature in Azerbaijani Turkish, writes that Burhan al-Din 's most important work, the Divan, was written in Azerbaijani Turkish. Koprulu, in his History of Turkish Literature, asserts that the Azerbaijani dialect is clearly evident in Burhan al-Din's works. Tören claims that the language of Burhan al-Din's works is Old Anatolian Turkish, yet in another article for the Turkish-Islamic Encyclopedia, she states that Burhan al-Din's poetic language belongs to the Azerbaijani region of Old Anatolian Turkish. Banarlı shares similar views. Historian Ismail Uzuncharshili asserts that Burhan al-Din's works were written in the Azerbaijani dialect. The author of the Encyclopedia of Islam's article on Burhan al-Din, C. Rypka, includes him among poets who used the Azerbaijani dialect.
Two Dialects The first researcher of Burhan al-Din's poetry, Gibb, wrote: His ghazals and rubai were written in a pure yet distinct western Turkish dialect. However, the tuyughs are rich in eastern Turkish words and grammatical forms not used elsewhere. Turkish linguist H. Develi confirms that Burhan al-Din's Divan includes works written in both dialects of Old Anatolian Turkish. The western dialect was his native tongue, while he learned the eastern dialect during his time in
Cairo, where the official and literary language was Mamluk Kipchak. Develi states that this language could be termed "generally eastern Turkic." Eastern dialectal features primarily appear in the
tuyughs, where eastern and western Turkish elements coexist. According to Develi, Burhan al-Din occasionally used the musicality of the eastern dialect to enrich his style, though he was not fully proficient in it. Develi suggests that studying Nasimi and Fuzuli's texts is more appropriate for understanding the history of Azerbaijani language development than Burhan al-Din's.
Old Anatolian Turkish Version Some authors argue that during Burhan al-Din's era, the "Anatolian Turks" had a unified language, and clear boundaries between the dialects of Old Anatolian Turkish were absent. Turkish linguist A. N. Kononov believed that although Burhan al-Din wrote in "Turkic related to Azerbaijani," there are no uniquely Azerbaijani characteristics in his divan's language because western Oghuz and Azerbaijani dialects had not yet diverged at that time. Turkologist V. G. Guzev, in his monograph on Ottoman Turkish, also mentions that the Turks in Anatolia during this period shared a common language: "The number of works in the language of Anatolian Turks increased significantly in the 14th and 15th centuries, including Burhan al-Din's Divan." Guzev explains that the term "Old Ottoman," often used for this language, is a misnomer and that "Old Anatolian Turkish" is more accurate. The language had two dialect zones—western and eastern. Guzev notes that eastern works display features resembling
Azerbaijani Turkish. E. R. Tenishev, editor of the journal Soviet Turkology and the publication Comparative-Historical Grammar of Turkic Languages, classifies Burhan al-Din among poets who wrote in Seljuk (Old Anatolian Turkish, Old Ottoman) literary language. Turkish scholar Nuri Yüce, in his article on Ottoman Turkish, similarly argues that Burhan al-Din wrote in Old Ottoman (Old Anatolian) Turkish. == Significance, Personality, and Evaluation ==