tomb relief of Khitans and their baggage cart
Origin myth According to the
History of Liao compiled in the 14th century, a "sacred man" (
shen-ren) on a white horse had eight sons with a "heavenly woman" (
tiannü) who rode in a cart pulled by a grey ox. The man came from the Tu River (Lao Ha river in modern-day
Jilin,
Manchuria) and the woman from the Huang River (modern-day
Xar Moron river in
Inner Mongolia). The pair met where the two rivers join, and the eight sons born of their union became eight tribes. in 1025
Origins The earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in the
Book of Wei, a history of the
Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) that was completed in 554. Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans being active during the late third and early fourth centuries. The
Book of Jin (648) mentions the Khitans in the section covering the reign of
Murong Sheng (398–401). The
Samguk Sagi (1145) mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378. It is generally believed that the Khitans emerged from the
Yuwen branch of the
Xianbei people. Following a defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345, the Yuwen split into three tribes, one of which was called the
Kumo Xi. In 388 the Kumo Xi itself split, with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans. This view is partially backed up by the
Book of Wei, which describes the Khitans originating from the Xianbei. Beginning in the Song dynasty, some Chinese scholars suggested that the Khitans might have descended from the
Xiongnu people. While modern historians have rejected the idea that the Khitan were solely Xiongnu in origin, there is some support for the claim that they are of mixed Xianbei and Xiongnu origin. Beginning with
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in the fourteenth century, several scholars have theorized that the Khitans were
Mongolic in origin, and in the late 19th century, Western scholars made the claim that the Khitans were
Tungusic in origin (modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim. The Khitans shaved their heads, leaving hair on their temples which grew down to the chest, in a similar fashion to the related Kumo Xi,
Shiwei, and Xianbei. in Shenyang After splitting from the Yuwen, the Khitans and Kumo Xi fled to the region of Songmo (modern southern
Hexigten Banner and western
Ongniud Banner). According to the
New Book of Tang, the territory of the Khitans rested on what is now the area south of
Xar Moron River and east of the Laoha between
Chaoyang, Liaoning. The Khitans then faced a joint invasion by the
Rouran Khaganate and
Goguryeo, which caused them to migrate south to the east of Bailang River (modern
Daling River). By the time the
Book of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China's
Jilin and
Liaoning Provinces. The Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in the region, as well as to the
Northern Qi (550–577) and
Sui (589–618) dynasties. Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of the
Eastern Turkic Khaganate,
Uighurs and Sui and
Tang dynasties. In the
Book of Sui (Volume 84), the Khitan are described as "bellicose in plundering and raiding borders" and "the most uncourteous and arrogant among all barbarians". According to the
History of Liao, the Khitans were nomads who migrated according to the season. They depended on horses for their livelihood and let them graze openly while their men were demobilized. Their men drank
kumiss and practiced archery to hunt for their daily needs. Due to their way of life, they often had the upper hand in military affairs.
Eight tribes There were eight Khitan tribes: the Xiwandan, Hedahe (Adahe), Fufuyu (Jufufu), Yuling (Yuyuling), Rilian, Piqie (Pilier), Li (black), and Tuliuhan (Tuliuyu). The tribal composition of the Dahe Confederation is listed as Daji, Hebian, Duhuo, Fenwen, Tubian, Ruixi, Zhuijin, and Fu. The Hedahe were the leading tribe of the Confederation, from which its name is taken from. Other tribes mentioned are: Danjieli, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, and Xiwa. The component tribes were largely autonomous and the Dahe were only responsible for foreign affairs. After the Dahe united the Khitans, the system of rotating leadership was replaced by "Shixuan", electing a leader based on their talent and ability from the Dahe lineage. The other clans had the right to vote but not to be elected. Brothers, cousins, and nephews often succeeded rather than the son of the previous leader. The Dahe Confederation submitted to the Tang in both 628 and 648, under the leadership of Mohui and
Kuge respectively. The
Khagan of the Eastern Turks,
Jiali Khan, offered to exchange the rebel
Liang Shidu for the Khitans, but
Emperor Taizong would not agree to the exchange. Kuge was appointed the Governor-general of Songmo and several prefectures were set up for Khitan tribes: Qiaoluo for the Daji, Tanhan for the Hebian, Wufeng for the Duhuo, Yuling for the Fenwen, Rilian for the Tubian, Tuhe for the Ruixi, Wandan for the Zhuijin, Pili for the Fu. The chieftains of the tribes were appointed as prefects. The Tang emperor bestowed the imperial surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that was "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes". Some Khitan tribes such as the Songmo, Xuanzhou, Neiji, Yishige, and Yishihuo were not included in the Dahe Confederation. The Neiji tribe led by Sun Aocao submitted to the Tang in 619. Aocao's great-grandson
Sun Wanrong was appointed prefect of Guicheng. Towards the turn of the century, however, Tang control of the north began to slip. The Governor-general of
Yingzhou, Zhao Wenhui, regarded the Khitan chieftains as his servants. The Khitan chieftain Sun Wanrong and his brother-in-law, the governor of Songmo,
Li Jinzhong, felt insulted and bullied by Zhao. In 696, a famine occurred in Khitan territory and Zhao failed to provide relief, sparking a rebellion. The Dahe leader, Li Jinzhong, captured Yingzhou and declared himself "Wushang Khagan" (paramount khagan). The Tang sent 28 generals against the Khitans but were defeated at Xiashi Gorge (
Lulong County). The Tang troops continued to suffer defeat until Li Jinzhong died of disease.
Qapaghan Qaghan of the
Second Turkic Khaganate offered to aid the Tang in return for subdued Türkic households under Tang control. The Türks attacked the Khitans from the north while the Tang invaded from the south. The Khitans suffered a heavy defeat before Sun Wanrong rescued the situation and counterattacked, seizing Yingzhou and
Youzhou. A 170,000 strong Tang army was defeated by the Khitans. Another 200,000 soldiers were sent against the Khitans but failed to stop their advance. However the Khitans failed to account for the Türks sacking their capital, Xincheng, and the defection of the
Kumo Xi from their ranks. Sun Wanrong was killed by his servant. Although the rebellion was defeated, it took over fifteen years from 700 to 714 before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans. The Türks used their newly conquered territory to launch raids into Hebei. In 720 the military chief (
Yaguan) Ketuyu attacked the reigning Khitan ruler, Suogu, who fled to Yingzhou seeking Chinese protection. General Xue Tai was ordered to punish Ketuyu but he failed and was captured along with Suogu and the Kumo Xi king Li Dapu. Ketuyu enthroned Suogu's cousin Yuyu as the new Khitan ruler. Ketuyu sent tribute to the Tang court but the official in charge treated him with rudeness. Ketuyu murdered the Khitan ruler Shaogu and defected to the Türks. Ketuyu suffered a defeat against the Tang in 732 and fled while his Kumo Xi allies surrendered to the Tang. In 734, Ketuyu defeated a Tang army with the support of his Türkic allies and then lost another battle against Tang forces under the command of Zhang Shougui. The Tang convinced a Khitan military official, Li Guozhe, to murder Ketuyu and the Khitan ruler Qulie, who had been enthroned by Ketuyu.
Yaonian Confederation The rebellion of Ketuyu ended Dahe supremacy in 730. Li Guozhe, chief of the Yishihuo tribe, and Nieli, also from the Yishihuo tribe, founded a new confederation. Nieli enthroned Zuwu Khagan from the Yaonian clan as the supreme ruler of the Khitans, while Nieli became the military chief. Although there was a khagan, the military chief's power actually exceeded that of the khagan throughout the duration of the confederation. The ten tribes of the Yaonian Confederation consisted of the Danlijie, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, Xiwa, Yaonian, and Yila. Other tribes are also mentioned: the Yishi, Pin, Chute, Wukui, Niela, Tulübu, and Tuju. The Tang governor
An Lushan launched two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second. An then led a rebellion against the Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. An had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhuer who worked for him as a teenager but An Lushan castrated him. Li Zhuer was highly trusted by An Lushan, and he and two other men served as his personal attendants. Li Zhuer was approached by conspirators who wanted to kill An when he became ill and started abusing his subordinates. An was hacked to death by Li Zhuer and another conspirator, Yan Zhuang, who was beaten by An before. The
An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang dynasty. Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs while simultaneously paying tribute to the Tang, a situation that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840. There were 29 recorded tribute activities to the Tang from 756 to 841. From 840 until the rise of Abaoji, the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang dynasty. Towards the end of that period, the Khitans began a series of major conquests. Under the reign of Xianzhi Khagan (860?–882?), the Khitans subjugated the Kumo Xi and Shiwei. Two campaigns were launched against the Kumo Xi. Xianzhi captured 700 Xi households who were later settled as the Dieladieda tribe under Abaoji's reign. Saladi, Abaoji's father, captured 7,000 Xi households and moved them to Qinghe in the region of Raole (west of modern
Ningcheng County). During the Xiantong reign period (860–874), Xianzhi sent envoys to the Tang court twice. According to the
Zizhi Tongjian, during the Xiantong period, the Khitans' territory expanded drastically and by the time of Abaoji, all the Kumo Xi, Shiwei, Tatars, western Türks, and Jurchens had been defeated.
Liao dynasty in 1111 AD. empire in 1169 at its greatest extent depicting young Khitan boys and girls
Abaoji, who had been successful in uniting the Khitan tribes, founded the
Liao dynasty in 907. The Liao territory included modern day northern and northeastern China, Mongolia, and parts of the Korean Peninsula and Siberia. Although transition to an imperial social and political organization was a significant change for the Khitans, the
Khitan language, origin myth, shamanic religion and nomadic
lifestyle endured. China was in chaos after the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907. Known as the
Wudai Shiguo period,
Five Dynasties ruled northern China in rapid succession with only nominal support from the
Ten Kingdoms of southern China. The Tang dynasty had been supported by
Shatuo Turks until
Zhu Wen murdered the last Tang emperor and founded the
Later Liang dynasty. The Shatuo Turks, who had been allied with the Khitans since 905, defeated the Later Liang and founded the
Later Tang dynasty in 923, but by 926 the former allies had grown apart. In 934
Yelü Bei, Abaoji's son, wrote to his brother
Emperor Taizong of Liao from the Later Tang court: "
Li Cong Ke has slain his
liege-lord, why not attack him?" In 936, the Khitans supported
Shi Jing Tangs rebellion against the Later Tang Emperor Li Cong Ke. Shi Jing Tang became emperor of the
Later Jin dynasty and, in exchange for their support, the Khitans gained sixteen new
prefectures. The Later Jin dynasty remained a vassal of the Khitans until the death of Shi Jing Tang in 942, but when the new emperor ascended, he indicated that he would not honor his predecessor's arrangement. The Khitans launched a military invasion against the Later Jin in 944. In January 947, the Emperor of the Later Jin dynasty surrendered to the Khitans. The Khitan emperor left the conquered city of
Kaifeng and unexpectedly died from an illness while travelling in May 947. Relations between
Goryeo and the Khitans were hostile after the Khitans destroyed
Balhae. Goryeo would not recognize the Liao dynasty and supported the fledgling
Song dynasty, which had formed south of the Khitans' territory. Though the Khitans would have preferred to attack China, they invaded Goryeo in 993. Khitan forces failed to advance beyond the
Chongchon River and were persuaded to withdraw, though Khitan dissatisfaction with Goryeo's conquest of the
Jurchen prompted a second invasion in 1010. This time the Khitans, led by their emperor, sacked the capital city
Kaesong. A third and final invasion in 1018 was repelled by Goryeo's forces, bringing an end to 30 years of war between the rivals. The Liao dynasty proved to be a significant power north of the
Chinese plain, continuously moving south and west, gaining control over former Chinese and Turk-Uyghur territories. In 1005
Chanyuan Treaty was signed, and peace remained between the Liao dynasty and the
Song dynasty for the next 120 years. During the reign of the
Emperor Daozong of Liao, corruption was a major problem and prompted dissatisfaction among many people, including the Jurchens. The Liao dynasty eventually fell to the
Jin dynasty of the
Jurchen in 1125, who defeated and absorbed the Khitans to their military benefit. The Khitans considered the
Khamag Mongols as their last hope when the Liao dynasty was invaded by the Jin,
Song dynasty and
Western Xia Empires. To defend against the Jurchens and Khitans, a
Long Wall was built by
Goryeo in 1033–1034, along with many border forts. One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the
custom of raping married Jurchen women by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by the Khitans was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution – giving female companions, food and shelter to guests – was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. Following the fall of the Liao dynasty, a number of the Khitan nobility escaped the area westwards towards
Western Regions, establishing the short-lived
Qara Khitai or Western Liao dynasty. After its fall, a small part under
Buraq Hajib established a local dynasty in the southern
Persian province of
Kirman. These Khitans were absorbed by the local Turkic and Iranian populations,
Islamized and left no influence behind them. As the
Khitan language is still almost completely unintelligible, it is difficult to create a detailed history of their movements. During the 13th century, the
Mongol invasions and conquests had a large impact on shifting ethnic identities in the region. Most people of the
Eurasian Steppe did not retain their pre-Mongol identities after the conquests. The Khitans were scattered across Eurasia and assimilated into the
Mongol Empire in the early 13th century. Fleeing from the
Mongols, in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and won several battles, even reaching the gates of the capital, but were defeated by Goryeo General
Kim Chwi-ryeo who pushed them back north to
Pyongan, where the remaining Khitans were finished off by Goryeo forces in 1219. == Language and writing systems ==