Africa Algeria on a
foggara in Algeria Qanats (designated foggaras in
Algeria) are the source of water for irrigation in large
oases like
Gourara. The foggaras are also found at
Touat (an area of Adrar 200 km from Gourara). The length of the foggaras in this region is estimated to be thousands of kilometers. Although sources suggest that the foggaras may have been in use as early as 200 CE, they were clearly in use by the 11th century after the Arabs took possession of the oases in the 10th century and the residents embraced Islam. The water is metered to the various users through the use of distribution
weirs that meter flow to the various canals, each for a separate user. The humidity of the oases is also used to supplement the water supply to the foggara. The temperature gradient in the vertical shafts causes air to rise by natural convection, causing a draft to enter the foggara. The moist air of the agricultural area is drawn into the foggara in the opposite direction to the water run-off. In the foggara it condenses on the tunnel walls and the air passes out of the vertical shafts. This condensed moisture is available for reuse.
Egypt Qanat irrigation technology was introduced to Egypt by the Achaemenid king
Darius I during his reign of 522–486 BCE, which is supported by the historian
Albert T. Olmstead. There are four main oases in the Egyptian desert. The
Kharga Oasis is one that has been extensively studied. There is evidence that as early as the second half of the 5th century BCE water brought in qanats was being used. The qanats were excavated through water-bearing sandstone rock, which seeps into the channel, with water collected in a basin behind a small dam at the end. The width is approximately , but the height ranges from ; it is likely that the qanat was deepened to enhance seepage when the water table dropped (as is also seen in Iran). From there the water was used to irrigate fields. There is another instructive structure located at the Kharga Oasis. A well that apparently dried up was improved by driving a side shaft through the easily penetrated sandstone (presumably in the direction of greatest water seepage) into the hill of Ayn-Manâwîr (also written to allow collection of additional water. After this side shaft had been extended, another vertical shaft was driven to intersect the side shaft. Side chambers were built, and holes bored into the rock—presumably at points where water seeped from the rocks—are evident.
Morocco In southern Morocco, the qanat (locally
khettara) is also used. On the margins of the
Sahara Desert, the isolated oases of the
Draa River valley and
Tafilalt have relied on qanat water for irrigation since the late 14th century. In
Marrakech and the
Haouz plain, the qanats have been abandoned since the early 1970s, having dried up. In the Tafilaft area, half of the 400 khettaras are still in use. The 1971
Hassan Adahkil Dam's build in the main course of the
Ziz River and its subsequent impact on local water tables is said to be one of the many reasons for the loss of half of the khettara. The black berbers (
haratin) of the south were the hereditary class of qanat diggers in Morocco who build and repair these systems. Their work was hazardous.
Tunisia The foggara water management system in Tunisia, used to create oases, is similar to that of the Iranian qanat. The foggara is dug into the foothills of a fairly steep mountain range such as the eastern ranges of the
Atlas Mountains. Rainfall in the mountains enters the aquifer and moves toward the Saharan region to the south. The foggara, in length, penetrates the aquifer and collects water. Families maintain the foggara and own the land it irrigates over a ten-meter width, with length reckoned by the size of plot that the available water will irrigate.
Asia Afghanistan The qanats are called kariz in
Dari (Persian) and
Pashto and have been in use since the pre-Islamic period. It is estimated that more than 9,370 karizes were in use in the 20th century. The oldest
functional kariz which is more than 300 years old and 8 kilometers long is located in
Wardak province and is still providing water to nearly 3,000 people. Many of these ancient structures were destroyed during the
Soviet–Aghan War and the
War in Afghanistan. Maintenance has not always been possible. The cost of labour has become very high, and maintaining the kariz structures is no longer possible. Lack of skilled artisans who have the traditional knowledge also poses difficulties. A number of the large farmers are abandoning their kariz which has been in their families sometimes for centuries, and moving to
tube and dug wells backed by diesel pumps. However, the government of Afghanistan was aware of the importance of these structures and all efforts were made to repair, reconstruct and maintain (through the community) the kariz. The
Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development along with national and international NGOs made the effort. There were still functional qanat systems in 2009. American forces were reported to have unintentionally destroyed some of the channels during expansion of a military base, creating tensions between them and the local community. Some of these tunnels were used to store supplies, and to move men and equipment underground.
Armenia Qanats have been preserved in
Armenia in the community of
Shvanidzor, in the southern province of
Syunik, bordering with Iran. Qanats are named
kahrezes in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of them were constructed before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005. Potable water runs through three of them, and two are in poor condition. In the summer, especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community.
Azerbaijan The territory of
Azerbaijan was home to numerous kahrizes many centuries ago. Archaeological findings suggest that long before the 9th century CE, kahrizes by which the inhabitants brought potable and irrigation water to their settlements were in use in Azerbaijan. Traditionally, kahrizes were built and maintained by a group of masons called 'Kankans' with manual labour. The profession was handed down from father to son. It is estimated that until the 20th century, nearly 1,500 kahrizes, of which as many as 400 were in the
Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, existed in Azerbaijan. However, following the introduction of electric and fuel-pumped wells during Soviet times, kahrizes were neglected. Today, it is estimated that 800 are still functioning in Azerbaijan. These operational kahrizes are key to the life of many communities. In 1999, upon the request of the communities in
Nakhichevan, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) began implementing a pilot programme to rehabilitate the kahrizes. By 2018 IOM rehabilitated more than 163 kahrizes with funds from the
United Nations Development Programme,
European Commission,
Canadian International Development Agency,
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and the
Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, US State Department, and the self-contribution of the local communities. In 2010, IOM began a kahriz rehabilitation project with funds from the
Korea International Cooperation Agency. During the First Phase of the action which lasted until January 2013, a total of 20 kahrizes in the mainland of Azerbaijan have been renovated.
China gallery near
Turpan,
Xinjiang, China The oasis of
Turpan, in the deserts of
Xinjiang in northwestern China, uses water provided by qanat (locally called
karez). There are nearly 1,000 karez systems in the area, and the total length of the canals is about 5,000 kilometers. Turpan has long been the center of a fertile oasis and an important trade center along the
Northern Silk Road, at which time it was adjacent to the kingdoms of
Korla and
Karashahr to the southwest. The historical record of the karez extends back to the
Han dynasty. The Turfan Water Museum is a
Protected Area of the People's Republic of China because of the importance of the Turpan karez water system to the history of the area.
Iran In the middle of the 20th century, an estimated 50,000
qanats were in use in Iran, Since 2002, UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme Intergovernmental Council began investigating the possibility of an international qanat research center to be located in Yazd, Iran. The
Qanats of Gonabad, also called kariz
Kai Khosrow, is one of the oldest and largest qanats in the world built between 700 BCE to 500 BCE. It is located at
Gonabad,
Razavi Khorasan Province. This property contains 427 water wells with total length of . , Zibad According to
Callisthenes, the Persians were using
water clocks in 328 BCE to ensure a just and exact distribution of water from qanats to their shareholders for agricultural irrigation. The use of water clocks in Iran, especially in Qanats of Gonabad and kariz
Zibad, dates back to 500 BCE. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the
Nowruz,
Chelah, or
Yaldā – the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The water clock, or
Fenjaan, was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from the Qanats of Gonabad until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks. Many of the Iranian qanats bear some characteristics which allow us to call them feat of engineering, considering the intricate techniques used in their construction. The eastern and central regions of Iran hold the most qanats due to low precipitation and lack of permanent surface streams, whereas a small number of qanats can be found in the northern and western parts which receive more rainfall and enjoy some permanent rivers. Respectively the provinces
Khorasan Razavi,
Southern Khorasan,
Isfahan, and
Yazd accommodate the most qanats, but from the viewpoint of water discharge the provinces Isfahan, Khorasan Razavi,
Fars and
Kerman are ranked first to fourth. Henri Golbot explored the genesis of the qanat in his 1979 publication, (The Qanats. A Technique for Obtaining Water), He argues that the ancient Iranians made use of the water that the miners wished to get rid of it, and founded a basic system named qanat or kariz to supply the required water to their farm lands. According to Golbot, this innovation took place in the northwest of the present Iran somewhere bordering Turkey and later was introduced to the neighboring
Zagros Mountains. According to an inscription left by
Sargon II, the king of
Assyria, in 714 BCE he invaded the city of
Uhlu (Ulhu in Urartu) lying in the northwest of
Lake Urmia that lay in the territory of the
Urartu kingdom, and then he noticed that the occupied area enjoyed a very rich vegetation even though there was no river running across it. So he managed to discover the reason why the area could stay green and realized that there were some qanats behind the matter. In fact it was
Ursa, the king of the region, who had rescued the people from thirst and turned Uhlu into a prosperous and green land. Golbot believes that the influence of the Medeans and Achaemenids made the technology of qanat spread from Urartu, in the western north of Iran and near the present border between Iran and Turkey, to all over the Iranian plateau. It was an
Achaemenid ruling that in case someone succeeded in constructing a qanat and bringing groundwater to the surface in order to cultivate land, or in renovating an abandoned qanat, the tax he was supposed to pay the government would be waived not only for him but also for his successors for up to 5 generations. During this period, the technology of qanat was in its heyday and it even spread to other countries. For example, following
Darius's order,
Silaks the naval commander of the Persian army and
Khenombiz the royal architect managed to construct a qanat in the
Kharga Oasis in Egypt. Beadnell believes that qanat construction dates back to two distinct periods: they were first constructed by the Persians, and later the Romans dug some other qanats during their reign in Egypt from 30 BCE to 395 CE. The magnificent temple built in this area during Darius's reign shows that there was a considerable population depending on the water of qanats. Ragerz has estimated this population to be 10,000 people. The most reliable document confirming the existence of qanats at this time was written by
Polybius who states that: "the streams are running down from everywhere at the base of Alborz mountain, and people have transferred too much water from a long distance through some subterranean canals by spending much cost and labor." During the
Seleucid era, which began after the occupation of Iran by
Alexander the Great, it seems that the qanats were abandoned. In terms of the situation of qanats during this era, some historical records have been found. In a study by Russian orientalist scholars it has been mentioned that: the Persians used the side branches of rivers, mountain springs, wells and qanats to supply water. The subterranean galleries excavated to obtain groundwater were named as qanat. These galleries were linked to the surface through some vertical shafts which were sunk in order to get access to the gallery to repair it if necessary. According to the historical records, the Parthian kings did not care about the qanats the way the Achaemenid kings and even Sassanid kings did. As an instance,
Arsac III, one of the Parthian kings, destroyed some qanats in order to make it difficult for the Seleucid king
Antiochus to advance further while fighting him. The historical records from this time indicate a perfect regulation on both water distribution and farmlands. All the water rights were recorded in a special document which was referred to in case of any transaction. The lists of farmlands – whether private or governmental – were kept at the tax department. During this period there were some official rulings on qanats, streams, construction of dam, operation and maintenance of qanats, etc. The government proceeded to repair or dredge the qanats that were abandoned or destroyed, and to construct the new qanats if necessary. A document written in the Pahlavi language points out the important role of qanats in developing the cities at that time. In Iran, the advent of Islam, which coincided with the overthrow of the Sassanid dynasty, brought about a profound change in religious, political, social and cultural structures. But the qanats stayed intact because the economic infrastructure including qanats was of great importance to the Arabs. As an instance,
Maurice Lombard reports that the Muslim clerics who lived during Abbasid period, such as
Abu Yusuf (died 798 CE) stipulated that whoever can bring water to the idle lands in order to cultivate, his tax would be waived and he would be entitled to the lands cultivated. Therefore, this policy did not differ from that of the Achaemenids in not getting any tax from the people who revived abandoned lands. The Arabs' supportive policy on qanats was so successful that even
Mecca gained a qanat. The Persian historian
Hamdallah Mustawfi writes: "
Zubaidah bint Ja'far (
Harun al-Rashid's wife) constructed a qanat in Mecca. After the time of Harun al-Rashid, during the caliph
al-Muqtadir's reign this qanat fell into decay, but he rehabilitated it, and the qanat was rehabilitated again after it collapsed during the reign of two other caliphs named
Al-Qa'im and
al-Nasir. After the era of the caliphs this qanat completely fell into ruin because the desert sand filled it up, but later
Amir Chupan repaired the qanat and made it flow again in Mecca." There are also other historical texts proving that the Abbasids were concerned about qanats. For example, according to the "Incidents of
Abdallah ibn Tahir's Time" written by
Gardizi, in 830 CE a terrible earthquake struck the town of
Forghaneh and reduced many homes to rubble. The inhabitants of
Nishapur used to come to Abdallah ibn Tahir in order to request him to intervene, for they fought over their qanats and found the relevant instruction or law on qanat as a solution neither in the prophet's quotations nor in the clerics' writings. So Abdallah ibn Tahir managed to bring together all the clergymen from throughout Khorasan and Iraq to compile a book entitled
Alghani (The Book of Qanat). This book collected all the rulings on qanats which could be of use to whoever wanted to judge a dispute over this issue. Gardizi added that this book was still applicable to his time, and everyone made references to this book. One can deduce from these facts that during the above-mentioned period the number of qanats was so considerable that the authorities were prompted to put together some legal instructions concerning them. Also it shows that from the 9th to 11th centuries the qanats that were the hub of the agricultural systems were also of interest to the government. Apart from "The Book of Alghani", which is considered as a law booklet focusing on qanat-related rulings based on Islamic principles, there is another book about groundwater written by
Al-Karaji in 1010. This book, entitled
Extraction of Hidden Waters, examines just the technical issues associated with the qanat and tries to answer the common questions such as how to construct and repair a qanat, how to find a groundwater supply, how to do leveling, etc.. Some of the innovations described in this book were introduced for the first time in the history of hydrogeology, and some of its technical methods are still valid and can be applied in qanat construction. The content of the book implies that its writer (Karaji) did not have any idea that there was another book on qanats compiled by the clergymen. There are some records dating back to that time, signifying their concern about the legal vicinity of qanats. For example,
Muhammad al-Shaybani quotes
Abu Hanifa that in case someone constructs a qanat in abandoned land, someone else can dig another qanat in the same land on the condition that the second qanat is 500 zera' (375 meters) away from the first one.
Ann Lambton quotes
Muʿīn al-Dīn Zamchī Isfizārī who wrote the book
Rowzat al-Jannat (the garden of paradise) that Abdallah bin Tahir (from the Taherian dynasty) and
Ismail Samani (from the
Samanid dynasty) had several qanats constructed in Nishapur (or "Neyshaboor"). Later, in the 11th century, a writer named Nasir Khosrow acknowledged all those qanats with the following words: "Neyshaboor is located in a vast plain at a distance of 40 Farsang (≈240 km) from Serakhs and 70 Farsang (~420 km) from Mary (
Marv) ... all the qanats of this city run underground, and it is said that an Arab who was offended by the people of Neyshaboor has complained that; what a beautiful city Neyshaboor could have become if its qanats would have flowed on the ground surface and instead its people would have been underground." These documents all certify the importance of qanats during the Islamic history within the cultural territories of Iran. In the 13th century, the invasion of Iran by Mongolian tribes reduced many qanats and irrigation systems to ruin, and many qanats were deserted and dried up. Later, in the era of the
Ilkhanid dynasty especially at the time of
Ghazan Khan and his Persian minister
Rashid al-Din Hamadani, some measures were taken to revive the qanats and irrigation systems. There is a 14th-century book entitled
Al-Vaghfiya Al-Rashidiya (Rashid's Deeds of Endowment) that names all the properties located in
Yazd,
Shiraz,
Maraghe,
Tabriz,
Isfahan and
Mosul that Rashid al-Din Hamadani donated to the public or religious places. This book mentions many qanats running at that time and irrigating a considerable area of farmland. In 2021, a British-trained architect
Margot Krasojević designed a luxury eco hotel based on principles of qanat and windcatchers in a desert in Iran, called Qanat. The project has not yet been built but offers ideas for applying ancient technology to modern-day cooling problems in the desert.
Iraq A survey of qanat systems in the
Kurdistan region of Iraq conducted by the Department of Geography at
Oklahoma State University (US) on behalf of
UNESCO in 2009 found that out of 683 karez systems, some 380 were still active in 2004, but only 116 were active by 2009. Reasons for the decline of qanats include "abandonment and neglect" prior to 2004, "excessive pumping from wells" and, since 2005, drought. Water shortages are said to have forced, since 2005, over 100,000 people who depended for their livelihoods on karez systems to leave their homes. The study says that a single karez has the potential to provide enough household water for nearly 9,000 individuals and irrigate over 200 hectares of farmland. UNESCO and the government of Iraq plan to rehabilitate the karez through a Karez Initiative for Community Revitalization launched in 2010. Most of the karez are in
Sulaymaniyah Governorate (84%). A large number are also found in
Erbil Governorate (13%), especially on the broad plain around and in Erbil city.
India In India, karez systems are located at
Bidar,
Bijapur,
Burhanpur "(Kundi Bhandara)", and
Aurangabad. The Bidar karez systems were probably the first dug in India. It dates to the
Bahmani period. Bidar has three karez systems as per
Ghulam Yazdani's documentation. Other than Naubad there are two more karez systems in Bidar, "Shukla Theerth" and "Jamna Mori". The Shukla theerth is the longest karez system in Bidar. The mother well of this karez has been discovered by near Gornalli Kere, a historic embankment. The third system called Jamna mori is more of a distribution system within the old city area with many channels crisscrossing the city lanes. Restoration efforts commenced in 2014, with the desilting and excavation of the Naubad Karez in 2015, uncovering 27 vertical shafts linked to the Karez. The rejuvenation of the system has had a significant impact on the water-deficit city of Bidar. A seventh line of the system was discovered in 2016 during a sewage line excavation. Detailed documentation of the Naubad karez system was done in August 2013 and a report was submitted to District Administration of Bidar that found several new facts. The research has led to the initiation of cleaning the debris and collapsed sections paving the way to its rejuvenation. The cleaning of karez has led to bringing water to higher areas of the plateau, and it has in turn recharged the wells in the vicinity. The Bijapur karez system is much more complicated. A survey reveals that it has surface water and groundwater connections. The Bijapur karez is a network of shallow masonry aqueducts, terracotta/ceramic pipes, embankments and reservoirs, tanks etc. All weave together a network to ensure water reaches the old city. The system starts at Torwi and extends as shallow aqueducts and further as pipes; further it becomes deeper from the Sainik school area onward which exists as a tunnel dug through the geology. The system can be clearly traced up to Ibrahim Roja. In Aurangabad the karez systems are called nahars. These are shallow aqueducts running through the city. There are 14 aqueducts in Aurangabad. The Nahar-i-Ambari is the oldest and longest. Its again a combination of shallow aqueducts, open channels, pipes, cisterns, etc. The source of water is a surface water body. The karez has been constructed right below the bed of lake. The lake water seeps through the soil into the Karez Gallery. In Burhanpur the karez is called "Kundi-Bhandara", sometimes wrongly referred to as"Khuni Bhandara". The system is approx 6 km long starts from the alluvial fans of Satpura hills in the north of the town. Unlike Bidar, Bijapur and Aurgangabad the System airvents are round in shape. Inside the Karez one could see lime depositions on the walls. The Systems ends to carry water further to palaces and public fountains through pipe line.
Indonesia It has been suggested that underground temples at Gua Made in
Java reached by shafts, in which masks of a green metal were found, originated as a qanat.
Israel and Palestine See the
Roman-period Biar aqueduct.
Japan In Japan there are several dozen qanat-like structures, locally known as 'mambo' or 'manbo', most notably in the
Mie and
Gifu Prefectures. Whereas some link their origin clearly to the Chinese karez, and therefore to the Iranian source, a Japanese conference in 2008 found insufficient scientific studies to evaluate the origins of the mambo.
Jordan Among the qanats built in the
Roman Empire, the long
Gadara Aqueduct in northern
Jordan was possibly the longest continuous qanat ever built. Partly following the course of an older
Hellenistic aqueduct, excavation work arguably started after a visit by emperor
Hadrian in 129–130 CE. The Gadara Aqueduct was never totally finished and was put in service only in sections.
Oman In Oman there are several systems of Iron Age irrigation systems called
falaj, plural
aflaj, found in the north of the country. There are three types of Falaj: The acute shortage of water resources give water a decisive role in the regional conflicts arose in the course of history of Balochistan. Therefore, in Balochistan, the possession of water resources is more important than ownership of land. Hence afterward a complex system for the collection, channeling and distribution of water was developed in Balochistan. Similarly, the distribution and unbiased flow of water to different stockholders also necessitate the importance of different societal classes in Balochistan in general and particularly in Makoran. For instance, sarrishta, literally, head of the chain, is responsible for administration of channel. He normally owns the largest water quota. Under sarrishta, there are several heads of owners issadar who also possessed larger water quotas. The social hierarchy within Baloch society of Makoran depends upon the possession of largest quotas of water. The role of sarrishta in some cases hierarchical and passing from generations within the family and he must have the knowledge of the criteria of unbiased distribution of water among different issadar. The sharing of water is based on a complex indigenous system of measurement depends upon time and space particularly to the phases of moon; the hangams. Based on seasonal variations and share of water the hangams are apportioned among various owners over period of seven or fourteen days. However, in some places, instead of hangam, anna used which is based on twelve-hour period for each quota. Therefore, if a person own 16 quotas it means that he is entitled for water for eight days in high seasons and 16 days in winter when water level went down as well as expectation of winter rain (Baharga) in Makran region. The twelve-hour water quota again subdivided into several sub-fractions of local measuring scales such as tas or pad (Dr Gul Hasan Pro VC LUAWMS, 2 day National conference on Kech). The
Chagai district is in the north west corner of
Balochistan, Pakistan, bordering with
Afghanistan and Iran. Qanats, locally known as
Kahn, are found more broadly in this region. They are spread from Chaghai district all the way up to
Zhob district.
Syria Qanats were found over much of Syria. The widespread installation of groundwater pumps has lowered the water table and qanat system. Qanats have gone dry and been abandoned across the country.
Europe Greece The
Tunnel of Eupalinos on
Samos runs for 1 kilometre through a hill to supply water to
Pythagorion. It was built on the order of
Polycrates around 550 BCE. At either end of the tunnel proper, shallow
qanat-like tunnels carried the water from the spring and to the town.
Italy The long
Tunnels of Claudius, intended to partially drain the largest Italian inland water,
Fucine Lake, was constructed using the qanat technique. It featured shafts up to deep. The entire ancient town of
Palermo in
Sicily was equipped with a huge qanat system built during the
Arab period (827–1072). Many of the qanats are now mapped and some can be visited. The famous Scirocco room has an air-conditioning system cooled by the flow of water in a qanat and a "wind tower", a structure able to catch the wind and use it to draw the cooled air up into the room.
Luxembourg The
Raschpëtzer near
Helmsange in southern
Luxembourg is a particularly well preserved example of a
Roman qanat. It is probably the most extensive system of its kind north of the
Alps. To date, some 330 m of the total tunnel length of 600 m have been explored. Thirteen of the 20 to 25 shafts have been investigated. The qanat appears to have provided water for a large
Roman villa on the slopes of the
Alzette valley. It was built during the
Gallo-Roman period, probably around the year 150 and functioned for about 120 years thereafter.
Spain gardens in
Granada There are still many examples of or qanat systems in Spain, most likely brought to the area by the
Moors during their rule of the
Iberian Peninsula.
Turrillas in
Andalusia on the north facing slopes of the Sierra de Alhamilla has evidence of a qanat system.
Granada is another site with an extensive qanat system. In
Madrid they were called and were used until the construction of the
Canal de Isabel II. See and in Spanish.
The Americas s and
acequias of the Americas are qanats by way of Spanish colonization. Qanats in the Americas, usually referred to as
puquios or filtration galleries, can be found in the
Nazca Province of
Peru and in northern
Chile. The Spanish introduced qanats into Mexico in 1520 CE. In the
Atacama Desert of northern Chile the shafts of puquios are known as
socavones. == Symbolism in Iranian culture ==